UNIVERSM 


HISTORY  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL 
DUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


THOMAS  EVERKTTE  COCHRAN 


A  THESIS 

PKFSENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 

PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PRESS  OF 

rHE  NEW  (TRA  PRINTiNT 
LANCA31CR,  P, 

1921 


EXCHANGE 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


HISTORY  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL 
EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


BY 

THOMAS  EVERETTH  COCHRAN 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 

PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 

THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  COMPANY 
LANCASTER.  PA. 


1921 


DEDICATED  TO 

THE  FAITHFUL  SCHOOL  TEACHERS 

ADMINISTRATORS    AND    SUPERVISORS 

OF  FLORIDA 


r\ 


PREFACE 

Since  1911,  when  I  went  to  one  of  the  colleges  of  Florida 
as  professor  of  Education,  I  have  been  very  much  interested 
in  the  public-school  system  of  that  State.  In  1916  I  began  a 
detailed  study  of  its  origin  and  growth,  which  has  resulted  in 
the  preparation  of  this  monograph.  In  making  this  investi- 
gation, my  point  of  view  has  been  that  of  a  student  of  education 
and  educational  condiljons;  and  my  purpose,  to  give  an  account 
of  what  has  been  accomplished  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  lead 
to  a  better  understanding  of  present-day  problems.  The  work 
has  been  prepared  with  the  hope  that  it  may  be  of  real  service 
in  promoting  public  education  in  Florida.  If,  in  only  some 
small  way,  it  will  do  this,  I  shall  be  more  than  gratified. 

The  material  for  a  study  of  this  nature  is  found  in  a  wide 
range  of  sources,  and  I  gratefully  record  here  my  heavy  ob-  ' 
ligation  to  those  —  too  numerous  to  mention  by  name  —  who* 
have  aided  me  in  collecting  this  material.  I  also  desire  to  ex- 
press my  thanks  and  acknowledge  my  great  indebtedness  to 
Dr.  Frank  P.  Graves,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
Dr.  W.  N.  Sheats,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in 
Florida;  to  the  former  for  first  stimulating  my  interest  in  the 
history  of  education,  and  to  the  latter  for  furnishing  me  with 
much  valuable  information,  and  to  both  for  constant  encourage- 
ment and  scholarly  advice  given  throughout  the  entire  investi- 
gation. Finally,  I  gratefully  acknowledge  the  many  helpful 
suggestions  from  Professors  Arthur  J.  Jones  and  Thomas 
Woody,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  who  have  read  the 
entire  manuscript  and  commented  upon  it  to  its  betterment. 
They  who  have  aided  me,  however,  are  in  no  sense  responsible 
for  the  opinions  expressed,  nor  for  any  errors  that  may  appear. 

March  7,  1921. 

T.  E.  C. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.     RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA i 

I.  First  Attempts  at  Public  Education I 

A.  Introduction I 

B.  Florida  Education  Society I 

C.  The  Educational  Society  at  St.  Augustine 2 

D.  Educational  Status  of   St.  Johns  and  Mosquito 

Counties  2 

E.  Condition  of  Education  in  the  Territory 3 

F.  Provision  for  a  Manual-Labor  School  at  Talla- 

hassee    3 

G.  Early  Educational  Legislation 5 

1.  Congressional  Act  of  1-29-1827 5 

2.  Legislative  Act  of  11-20-1828 6 

3.  Legislative  Act  of  2-11-1832 6 

4.  Legislative  Act  of  2-15-1834 6 

5.  Legislative  Act  of  12-26-1835 7 

6.  Legislative  Acts  of  1836  and  1837 7 

7.  Legislative  Acts  of  1839 8 

8.  Legislative  Acts  of  1843  an<^  T^44 8 

9.  Legislative  Acts  of  1845 9 

H.  Legal  Organization  of  the  School  System  in  1845.  10 

I.  Actual  Gains  to  Public  Education  (1822-1845)  . .  n 

Summary   13 

CHAPTER  II.     RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA — 

Concluded 15 

II.  Beginnings  of  the  Public-School  System 15 

A.  Constitutional  and  Legal  Provisions 15 

1.  Constitution  of  1845 T5 

2.  Legislative  Acts  of  1847  and  1848 16 

3.  School  Legislation  of  1849 16 

4.  Legislative  Acts  of  1850  and  1851 18 

5.  School  Law  of  1853 19 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

B.  Results  Actually  Achieved  (1845-1868) 22 

1.  Educational  Accomplishment  prior  to  1861 . .  22 

a.  Regarding  Schools  and  School  Enroll- 

ment    22 

b.  Regarding    Administrative    Organiza- 

tion and  Financial  Support 24 

c.  Regarding  Popular  Interest  in  Educa- 

tion    26 

2.  Educational  Accomplishment  (1861-1868)..  27 

C.  Negro  Education 28 

1.  Negro  Education  prior  to  1865 29 

2.  Schools   Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of 

Certain  Northern  Benevolent  Associations.  29 

3.  Legal  Provision  for  Negro  Education 29 

4.  Schools  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  the 

State 30 

5.  Educational  Accomplishment 31 

Summary 32 

CHAPTER  III.     ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  PUBLIC- 
SCHOOL  SYSTEM 34 

I.  Constitution  of  1868 34 

A.  Article  on  Education 34 

B.  Its  Provisions  for  School  Organization 35 

C.  Its  Provisions  for  School  Support 36 

II.  School  Law  of  1869 36 

A.  Its  Provisions 36 

1.  Respecting  Administrative  Organization. ...  37 

a.  The  State  Board  of  Education 37 

b.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 

tion    38 

c.  County  Boards  of  Public  Instruction. .  39 

d.  County  Superintendents  of  Schools...  40 

e.  Local  School  Trustees 41 

2.  Respecting  the  Environment  and  Equipment 

of  the  Schools 41 

3.  Respecting  the  Teaching  Force 42 

4.  Respecting  the  System  of  Public  Instruction .  43 

5.  Respecting  the  Support  of  the  School  System.  44 


CONTENTS  ix 

B.  Some  Weaknesses  in  the  Law 46 

C.  The  People's  Reception  of  the  Law 46 

D.  The  Law  in  Operation 47 

Summary   47 

CHAPTER    IV.     WORK    OF    THE    PUBLIC-SCHOOL    SYSTEM 

(1868-1884)    49 

The  Educational  Situation  in  1868 49 

The  Educational  Revival  under  Chase  (1868-1870) 50 

Hindrances  to  Universal  Education 53 

Means  of  Support  for  the  Public  Schools 53 

Educational  Organization  and  Administration 58 

The  School  Plants 65 

The  Courses  of  Study 67 

Textbooks   Used 69 

The  Population 72 

The  Teaching  Staff 72 

Evidences  of  Educational  Progress 76 

Summary 78 

CHAPTER  V.     PROGRESS  OF  THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

(1884-1892)    79 

I.  Constitution  of  1885 79 

A.  Article  on  Education 79 

B.  Changes  in  the  Educational  System 81 

II.  School  Law  of  1889 84 

A.  Changes  in  Administrative  Organization 85 

B.  Changes  in  School  Support 87 

C.  Result  of  the  Changes 87 

III.  Progress  of  the  Public-School  System 88 

A.  Financial  Support  of  the  School  System 88 

B.  Educational  Organization  and  Administration 90 

C.  The  School  Plants 92 

D.  The  Courses  of  Study 94 

E.  The  Teaching  Force 95 

F.  The  System  of  Public  Instruction 102 

Summary   109 

CHAPTER  VI.     THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING   (1892- 

1920)    in 

I.  The  System  of  Public  Instruction m 


x  CONTENTS 

A.  Elementary- School  Instruction 112 

1.  The  Extension  of  Elementary  Instruction. . .  112 

2.  Means  Used  in  the  Extension  of  Elementary 

Instruction 112 

3.  The  Curricula  of  the  Elementary  Schools. . .  115 

B.  Secondary-School  Instruction 121 

1.  The  Extension  of  Secondary  Education. ...  121 

2.  Means  Used  in  the  Extension  of  Secondary 

Education    122 

3.  The  Curricula  of  the  Secondary  Schools 123 

4.  Present  Secondary- School  Advantages 131 

Summary   139 

CHAPTER  VII.     THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  —  Con- 
tinued    140 

C.  Vocational  Education 140 

1.  The  Extension  of  Vocational  Education. . . .  140 

2.  Commercial   Departments 140 

3.  Commercial  Courses  of  Study 141 

4.  Departments  of  Industrial  Education 141 

5.  Industrial  Courses  of  Study 143 

6.  Departments  of  Home  Economics 143 

7.  Courses  of  Study  in  Home  Economics 146 

8.  Agricultural  Departments 147 

9.  Courses  of  Study  in  Agriculture 148 

D.  Special  Types  of  Schools 149 

1.  The  Extension  of  Special  Education 149 

2.  School  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb 149 

3.  Reform  Schools 150 

4.  Kindergartens 151 

E.  Higher  Education 152 

1.  Higher  Education  prior  to  1892 152 

2.  Higher  Education,  1892-1905 158 

3.  Consolidation  of  the  Higher  Educational  In- 

stitutions in  1905 162 

4.  Higher  Education  since  1905 162 

Summary   168 

CHAPTER  VIII.     THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING — Con- 
cluded    1 70 


CONTENTS  xi 

II.  The  Environment  and  Equipment  of  the  Schools 170 

A.  Buildings,  Grounds,  and  Equipment 170 

B.  Hygienic  Conditions 172 

C.  Textbooks  Used 175 

III.  The  Teaching  Body 179 

A.  The   Number,   Qualification,   and  Experience  of 

Teachers 179 

B.  The  Preparation  of  Teachers 179 

C.  The  Examination  and  Certification  of  Teachers. .  188 

D.  The  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service 192 

E.  The  Salaries^of  Teachers 196 

IV.  The  Financing  of  Public  Education 197 

A.  School  Expenditures 198 

B.  School  Funds  and  Taxation 198 

C.  Apportionment  of  the  School  Funds 200 

Summary   200 

CHAPTER  IX.     SOME  FACTORS  FAVORING  THE  RECENT  AD- 
VANCE OF  EDUCATION 202 

The  Growth  of  Population 202 

The  Increase  of  Wealth 202 

The  Growth  of  Public  Interest  in  Free  Schools 203 

Improved  School  Legislation 205 

State  Aid. 206 

National  Aid 208 

Private  Appropriations 208 

The  Influence  of  Education  in  Other  States 209 

Better  Administrative  Control  and  Supervision 210 

Better  Educational  Leadership 211 

Summary   212 

CHAPTER  X.     CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  PRESENT  PUBLIC-SCHOOL 

SYSTEM 213 

I.  General  Administrative  Control  and  Supervision 213 

A.  School  Officers 213 

B.  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 213 

C.  State  Board  of  Education 214 

D.  State  Vocational-Education  Board 215 

—  E.  State  Board  of  Control. .                                         .  216 


xii  CONTENTS 

F.  State  Board  of  Examiners 217 

G.  State  High-School  Inspector 217 

H.  Rural  School  Inspectors 218 

I.  County  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction 218 

J.  County  Boards  of  Public  Instruction 219 

K.  Local  School  Supervisors 221 

L.  Administrative  Unit 221 

M.  Special-Tax  School-Districts 222 

N.  Consolidated  Special-Tax  School-Districts 222 

0.  District  Trustees 223 

P.  School- Attendance   Officers 223 

II.  School  Population  and  Attendance 224 

A.  Age  Limits 224 

B.  School  Census 224 

C.  Separation  of  the  Races 225 

D.  Suspension  from  School 226 

E.  Place  of  Attendance 226 

F.  Time  and  Term 226 

G.  School  Holidays 227 

H.  Meaning  of  School  Year,  Term,  Month,  and  Day.  227 

1.  Compulsory  Attendance 227 

J.  Consolidation  of  Schools  and  Transportation  of 

Pupils 229 

III.  The  System  of  Public  Instruction 229 

A.  Extent 229 

B.  Classification  of  the  Public  Free  Schools 229 

C.  Elementary- School   Instruction 230 

D.  Secondary-School  Instruction 233 

E.  Military  Instruction  and  Training 237 

F.  Vocational  Education 237 

G.  Special  Types  of  Schools 238 

- —  H.  Higher  and  Professional  Education 239 

IV.  School  Environment  and  Equipment 239 

A.  Buildings  and  Sites 239 

B.  Health  Regulations 241 

C.  Textbooks 241 

V.  The  Teaching  Staff 242 

A.  Examination  and  Certification 242 

B.  Appointment  and  Tenure 245 


CONTENTS 


Xlll 


C.  Salaries  and  General  Duties 246 

D.  Training  and  Supervision 247 

VI.  Revenue  for  the  Support  of  Public  Free  Schools 248 

A.  Sources  of  School  Revenue 248 

B.  Apportionment  of  the  School  Revenue 249 

C.  Local  Bonds  and  Indebtedness 250 

D.  Care  of  the  School  Revenue 251 

CHAPTER  XL    RETROSPECTION  AND  FORECAST 253 

I.  Public  Education  in  Retrospect 253 

A.  First  Attempts  at  Public  Education 253 

B.  Beginnings  o£  the  Public- School  System 253 

C.  Inauguration  of  the  Present  System 254 

D.  Progress  of  the  System  (1868-1884) 254 

E.  Reorganization  and  Advancement  (1884-1892)..  255 

F.  The  Educational  Awakening  (1892-1920) 256 

G.  Some  Results  Actually  Achieved  since  1877 257 

II.  Public  Education  in  Prospect 257 

A.  Some  Unfinished  Tasks 257 

B.  A  Promising  Future 260 

LIST  OF  REFERENCES 261 

INDEX  .  .  266 


LIST  OF  TABLES 

I.  Statistics  of  Education  in  Florida  for  1840,  1850, 

and   1860 27 

II.  Statistics  of   Negro  Education  in  Florida,   1865- 

1868 31 

III.  Progress  of  School  Fund  and  Expenditures,  1869- 

1884 56 

IV.  Number  of  Counties  Reporting  to  the  State  De- 

partment of  Education,  1870-1884 59 

V.  Number  of  Counties  Reporting  Their  Census  Re- 
turns  to  the   State   Department  of   Education, 

1870-1884 60 

VI.  The  Number  of  Schools  Operated  and  Total  Value 

of  School  Property,  1869-1884 68 


xiv  CONTENTS 

VII.  Statistics  Concerning  School  Population,  Number 
Enrolled,  Average  Daily  Attendance,  Length  of 
School  Term  and  Salary  Paid  the  Teachers, 

1869-1884 77 

VIII.  Progress  of  State  School-Fund  and  Expenditures 

for  Public-School  Purposes,  1884-1892 89 

IX.  How  the  Counties  Taxed  Themselves  for  the  Sup- 
port of  Schools  during  the  Period  1884-1892. . .     91 
X.  The  Number  of  Schools  Operated  and  Total  Value 

of  School  Property,  1884-1892 93 

XI.  The  Number  of  Teaching  Positions  Filled,  1884- 

1892 96 

XII.  Total  Population,  School  Population,  Number  En- 
rolled, School  Attendance  and  Length  of  School 
Term,  1884-1892 108 

XIII.  Growth  in  School  Population,  School  Enrollment, 

School  Attendance,  Length  of  School  Term,  and 
Educational   Status   of  Youth   Enrolled,    1892- 

1920 H3 

XIV.  Progress  in  Providing  Schools,  Teachers,  and  Free 

Transportation    for    Pupils    during   the    Period 

1892-1920 116 

XV.  Progress  in  Public  High-School  Education  during 

the  Period  1892-1918 124 

XVI.  Number  of  Public  High  Schools  on  the  Southern 

Accredited  List  in  Each  of  the  States  in  1919. . .   138 
XVII.  Number  and  Kinds   of   Public-School   Buildings, 
Number  of  Rooms,  Patent  Desks  in  Use,  Square 
Yards  of  Good  Blackboards,  and  Value  of  All 

Public-School  Property,  1892-1920 173 

XVIII.  Statistics  Relating  to  the  Teaching  Body,   1897- 

1920 180 

XIX.  Teacher-Training  Departments  for  the  Year  1915- 

1916 185 

XX.  Teacher-Training  Departments  for  the  Year  1916- 

1917 185 

XXI.  Teacher-Training  Departments  for  the  Year  1917- 

1918 187 


CONTENTS  xv 

XXII.  Teacher-Training  Departments  for  the  Year  1918- 

1919 187 

XXIII.  Teacher-Training  Departments  for  the  Year  1919- 

1920 188 

XXIV.  Statistics  Relating  to  the  Number  of  Teachers  At- 

tending Summer  Schools  and  State  Teachers'  As- 
sociations   and    Taking    Educational    Journals, 

1897-1920 196 

XXV.  Average  Salaries  of  Teachers  during  the  Period 

1893-1920 197 

XXVI.  Growth  of  Public-School  Expenditures  since  1892.   199 
XXVII.  How  the  Counties  Taxed  Themselves  for  the  Sup- 
port of  Schools,  1892-1920 204 

XXVIII.  Some  Achievements  in  Public  Education  since  1877. 


HISTORY  OF 

PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION 
IN  FLORIDA 


HISTORY  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION 
IN  FLORIDA 

CHAPTER    I 

RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA 
I.     FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

The  history  of  public  education  in  Florida  may  be  said  to  date 
as  far  back  as  1822,  the  year  in  which  Florida  was  organized  as 
a  territory  by  Congress ;  for  that  year  every  sixteenth  section  of 
land  throughout  the  Territory  was  reserved  by  the  General  Gov- 
ernment for  the  purpose  of  aiding  in  the  maintenance  of  primary 
schools.1  But  for  nearly  a  decade  no  popular  interest  in  the 
matter  of  education  seems  to  have  been  manifested,  except  in 
connection  with  some  Spanish  mission  schools  maintained  by  the 
Catholics. 

Florida  Education  Society. — On  January  22,  1831,  however, 
an  educational  society  known  as  the  Florida  Education  Society 
was  formed  at  Tallahassee,  with  some  of  the  leading  people  of 
Florida  as  its  members.2  This  was  an  institution  arranged  upon 
very  much  the  same  plan  as  a  state  lyceum,  though  its  primary 
object3  was  "to  collect  and  diffuse  information  on  the  subject 
of  education,  and  to  endeavor  to  procure  the  establishment  of 
such  a  general  system  of  instruction  as  is  suited  to  the  wants  and 
condition  of  the  Territory."  Persons  were  admitted  to  its  mem- 

1  Prior  to  this  there  is  no  record  of  any  educational  activity  whatever 
in  Florida.    If  any  schools  were  maintained,  they  were  probably  all  in  the 
hands  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  as  the  resident  population  of  the  Territory 
were  largely  of  this  denomination. 

2  The  officers  of  this  society  were :  David  Floyd,  Esq.,  president ;  Moses 
E.  Levy,  Esq.,  Dr.  Edward  Aiken,  and  B.  D.  Wright,  Esq.,  vice  presi- 
dents;  D.  Davidson,  corresponding  secretary;   E.  B.  Perkins,  recording 
secretary;    Parsons   O.    Hays,    treasurer;    Joseph   W.    Field,    Turbutt   R. 
Betton,  John  Duval,  William  Williams,  and  Parsons  O.  Hays,  directors. 

3  See  American  Annals   of  Education  and  Instruction,   Vol.   I    (May, 
1831),  p.  225;  quoted  from  the  Education  Reporter  of  that  year. 

1 


2  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

bership  by  election  and  upon  the  payment  of  a  membership  fee 
of  two  dollars.4  The  society  met  once  every  three  months;  its 
directors,  once  every  month.4  As  we  shall  see  in  the  following 
paragraphs,  it  had  considerable  influence  in  the  way  of  arousing 
public  interest  in  "the  sacred  cause  of  education." 

The  Educational  Society  at  St.  Augustine. — Auxiliary  societies 
of  the  Florida  Education  Society  were  organized  in  various  parts 
of  the  Territory.  The  most  important  of  these  was  the  St.  Johns 
and  Mosquito  County  Society,  at  St.  Augustine,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  promote  the  educational  welfare  in  the  counties 
after  which  it  was  named.  Like  the  other  branches,  it  could  ap- 
point delegates  to  attend  the  meetings  of  the  parent  society ;  and 
the  latter  also  could  appoint  delegates  to  its  meetings.  These 
delegates  were  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  membership  in  the 
society  they  were  attending.  Like  the  other  branches,  too,  the 
St.  Johns  and  Mosquito  County  Society  was  required  to  report 
to  the  parent  society  all  the  information  it  could  obtain  regard- 
ing the  educational  interests  of  its  citizens.  It  seems  to  have 
been  quite  active,  and  to  have  helped  considerably  in  awakening 
an  interest  in  education  in  the  counties  for  which  it  was  formed.5 

Educational  Status  of  St.  Johns  and  Mosquito  Counties. — A 
report  of  the  educational  society  at  St.  Augustine  gives  us  the 
following  information  relative  to  the  state  of  education  in  St. 
Johns  and  Mosquito  counties  for  1831 : 6 

"  The  board,  in  attending  to  the  state  of  education  in  both  counties, 
have  to  say  that,  according  to  the  census  taken  last  year,  there  are  579 
white  children  of  both  sexes  under  15  years  of  age — 238  of  which  are 
under  5 — 10  in  Mosquito  County  and  569  in  St.  Johns.  The  number  of 
children  in  our  city  (St.  Augustine) — the  only  one  where  a  school  is 
found — is  463;  that  is  to  say:  in  Castle  Ward,  105;  in  Custom-house 
Ward,  168;  in  Hospital  Ward,  87;  and  in  Barrack  Ward,  103.  Of  these 
there  are  137  children  of  both  sexes  which  attend  school  daily.  Of  the 
nine  schools,  there  are  three  containing  57  children,  conducted  by  teachers 
qualified  to  impart  elementary  instruction  in  the  respective  branches  of 
education.  The  rest  may  be  considered  as  primary  schools  of  all  sorts, 
which,  from  the  very  reduced  salary  their  parents  can  afford  to  pay,  can- 
not much  be  depended  upon  for  their  stability. 

"  Thus  we  see  that  out  of  the  number  of  341  children,  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  15,  there  are  but  57  who  are  likely  to  obtain  elementary 

4  Loc.  cit, 

5  See  Amer.  An.  of  Ed.  and  Ins.,  I,  225  and  II,  94-96. 

6  See  Amer.  An.  of  Ed.  and  Ins.,  II  (Jan.  15,  1832),  p.  95. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  3 

education ;  80  receive  but  precarious  instruction ;  and  204  are  left  to  grow 
up  in  ignorance  and  its  attendant  consequences.  From  this  number,  how- 
ever, thefe  are  about  30  boys  who  have  been  receiving  for  the  last 
three  months  two  hours'  daily  instruction  in  spelling,  reading,  and  even 
writing." 

Under  the  influence  of  the  society  just  referred  to  "  a  subscrip- 
tion was  set  on  foot  for  the  establishment  of  a  free  school  at 
St.  Augustine,"  that  being  the  largest  school  community  of  the 
district.7  The  committee  having  this  in  charge  were  at  first 
greatly  encouraged.  They  reported  that  interest  in  public  educa- 
tion in  that  region  was  rapidly  increasing.  However,  there  is  no 
evidence  of  the  success"of  the  attempt.  The  public-school  inter- 
est, of  which  the  committee  spoke  so  encouragingly,  appears  to 
have  soon  subsided.  We  hear  of  no  more  attempts  to  establish 
a  free  school  at  St.  Augustine  for  over  two  years. 

Condition  of  Education  in  the  Territory. — From  the  report 
quoted  above  we  also  gain  an  insight  into  the  educational  status 
of  the  Territory  from  its  cession  until  1832.  After  speaking  of 
the  apathy  and  prejudices  of  the  people  of  Florida  respecting 
education,  of  the  encouragement  furnished  by  the  educational  prog- 
ress of  the  North,  of  the  lack  of  interest  in  public  education 
among  the  people  of  the  South,  and  finally,  of  the  importance  of 
a  system  of  education  for  a  state  and  a  nation  as  a  whole,  we  are 
given  this  additional  information  on  the  condition  of  education 
in  the  Territory :  & 

"  But  when  the  Floridian  looks  at  home,  the  importance  of  a  general 
system  of  education  in  a  national  point  of  view  is  lost  sight  of  in  the 
consideration  of  education  in  the  Territory  since  the  cession,  among  a 
large  and  increasing  population,  a  large  portion  of  which  can  neither 
read  nor  write,  the  indifference  with  which  the  want  of  education  is 
viewed  by  a  great  majority,  and  the  obstacles  which  the  scattered  popu- 
lation presents,  rendering  the  establishment  of  even  a  limited  system  of 
common  schools  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impracticable." 

Provision  for  a  Manual-Labor  School  at  Tallahassee. — About 
this  time  the  manual-labor  schools  established  by  Fellenberg  in 
Switzerland  were  being  strongly  recommended  by  many  educa- 
tional leaders  in  the  United  States.  A  committee  appointed  by  the 
Governor  of  the  Territory  to  study  the  conditions  of  the  schools 

7  See  Amer.  An.  of  Ed.  and  Ins.,  II,  96. 

8  Ibid.,  94-95- 


4  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  the  Territory  and  to  report  to  the  following  legislative  council 
the  best  system  of  education  adapted  to  the  educational  needs 
of  the  people  strongly  urged  the  establishment  of  similar  schools.9 
The  Florida  Education  Society  also  urged  the  establishment  of 
such  schools.  In  1831,  some  public-spirited  citizens  of  Tallahas- 
see, acting  upon  the  recommendation  of  this  committee  and  that 
of  the  Florida  Education  Society,  decided  to  organize  a  school 
similar  to  those  of  the  Fellenberg  type.  Concerning  this  project 
we  find  the  following  record : 10 

"Five  individuals  have  agreed,  if  it  can  be  done  at  an  expense  within 
their  means,  to  purchase  a  small  tract  of  land,  and  form  a  small  manual- 
labor  school,  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tallahassee.  A  teacher 
is  to  be  employed  to  take  charge  of  a  limited  number  of  pupils;  suit- 
able buildings  are  to  be  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  teacher 
and  pupils,  who  are  to  board  together,  with  as  little  connection  as  pos- 
sible with  the  inhabitants  in  the  vicinity.  The  pupils  will  be  required  to 
devote  a  certain  number  of  hours  daily  to  agricultural  and  mechanical 
employments  of  the  simplest  kinds.  No  pupil  will  be  admitted  except 
with  the  consent  of  the  teacher  and  each  of  the  proprietors ;  nor  suffered 
to  remain  in  the  school  unless  he  submits  to  its  regulations.  The 
studies,  at  the  commencement,  are  to  be  confined  to  the  usual  branches 
of  a  good  English  education,  including  mechanics,  botany,  chemistry,  etc." 

From  a  letter  written  by  a  person  at  Tallahassee  to  a  corre- 
spondent of  the  American  Annals  of  Education  and  Instruction, 
we  learn  that  the  project  elicited  so  much  interest  that,  in  a  few 
days,  between  six  and  seven  hundred  dollars  were  subscribed, 
to  be  paid  annually,  and  as  much  land  offered,  in  the  best  and 
healthiest  situations,  as  might  be  needed.  It  seems  that  the  people 
thought  that  they  would  soon  be  given  the  power  to  sell  the  lands 
which  had  been  set  apart  by  the  General  Government  for  com- 
mon schools  and  for  a  seminary  or  seminaries  of  learning,  and 
that  they  would  then  have  ample  funds  to  establish  a  system  of 
Fellenberg  schools.11  But,  not  obtaining  this  power,  their  inter- 
est in  the  movement  appears  to  have  died  out.  At  any  rate,  we 
have  no  record  as  to  the  success  of  the  new  system.  In  fact, 
shortly  after  this  the  Florida  Education  Society  ceased  to  exist ; 
and  with  it,  to  be  sure,  its  branches.  So,  of  course,  the  public 
interest  that  had  been  awakened  in  a  general  system  of  educa- 

9  See  House  Journal,  Territory  of  Florida,  1832,  pp.  14-15. 

10  See  Amer.  An.  of  Ed.  and  Ins.,  II  (April  i,  1832),  p.  239. 

11  See  Amer.  An.  of  Ed.  and  Ins.,  I  (July,  1831),  p.  328. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN   FLORIDA  5 

tion  soon  declined.  But  this  decadence  of  public-school  interest 
was  quickly  followed  by  some  legislation  with  regard  to  schools, 
to  which  we  shall  now  direct  our  attention. 

Early  Educational  Legislation. — Educational  legislation  prior  to 
1849  was  concerned  principally  with  the  public  lands  which  had 
been  reserved  by  Congress  for  educational  purposes — the  sem- 
inary and  the  sixteenth-section  lands.  The  laws  dealing  with 
these  lands  sought  to  make  them  a  source  of  revenue  for  the 
seminaries  and  common  schools,  respectively;  and,  since  the 
basis  of  the  schools  was  money,  it  seems  proper  that  we  should 
examine  these  laws  at  least  briefly.  Thus  we  shall  get  a  better 
idea  of  what  was  attempted  with  respect  to  public  education. 
In  doing  this,  however,  we  shall  confine  our  attention  to  the 
acts  dealing  with  the  sixteenth-section  lands,  since  these  were  the 
only  lands  used  for  public-school  support. 

Congressional  Act  of  January  2p,  1827. — But,  before  examin- 
ing the  acts  of  the  legislative  council,  let  us  glance  at  an  act  of 
Congress  in  regard  to  the  sixteenth-section  lands.12  As  we  have 
said,  the  Federal  Government  had  already  reserved  every  six- 
teenth section  of  land  to  the  Territory  for  purposes  of  education. 
In  making  this  reservation  the  Government  evidently  intended 
to  create  a  permanent  fund,  to  be  inviolably  preserved  and  ap- 
plied to  the  maintenance  of  public  schools.  As  a  guarantee  of 
this,  the  Territory  was  restricted  from  the  authority  to  sell  or 
alienate  these  lands,  except  under  the  Government's  immediate 
sanction.  It  was  given  the  right  only  to  rent  them  from  year  to 
year,  the  rental  from  each  section  to  be  used  in  the  township 
alone  to  which  it  belonged.  Accordingly,  on  January  29,  1827, 
Congress  passed  an  act  giving  the  governor  and  legislative  coun- 
cil of  the  Territory  the  power  to  take  possession  of  the  lands 
reserved  for  the  use  of  schools,  to  lease  them  from  year  to  year, 
to  appropriate  the  money  arising  from  the  rent  of  said  lands  to 
the  use  of  schools  in  the  township,  and  to  pass  laws  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  said  lands  from  intrusion  and  trespass  until  the 
Territory  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.13  The  fol- 
lowing year  a  law  was  passed  by  the  legislative  council  author- 
izing a  lease  of  the  sixteenth-section  lands  during  the  continu- 
ance of  the  territorial  government. 

12  For  this  act  see  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  IV,  201-02. 

13  See  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  IV,  201-02. 


6  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Legislative  Act  of  November  20,  1828.^ — In  November,  1828, 
while  Florida  was  still  a  territory,  an  act  was  passed  authorizing 
the  governor  and  legislative  council  to  appoint  three  suitable 
persons  in  each  and  every  county  in  the  Territory,  to  be  known 
as  trustees  of  the  school  lands,  to  take  possession  of  the  school 
lands  in  their  repective  counties  and  lease  them  from  time  to  time, 
to  collect  all  moneys  and  pay  the  same  to  the  territorial  treasurer, 
and  "  to  select  on  each  sixteenth  section  a  suitable  number  of  acres 
in  one  body,  not  to  exceed  20,  for  the  erection  of  a  schoolhouse." 
These  trustees  were  required  "to  transmit  a  detailed  statement 
of  all  their  proceedings  annually  to  the  legislative  council." 
Their  term  of  office  was  to  be  one  year  or  until  their  successors 
were  duly  qualified ;  and  their  compensation,  "  five  per  cent  of 
all  moneys  secured  by  bonds." 

In  some  of  the  counties  this  act  was  put  into  operation ;  but 
in  others  it  appears  never  to  have  been.  Only  five  sections  of 
land  were  reported  as  having  been  leased,  and  these  for  only  a 
paltry  consideration,  producing  a  total  annual  rent  of  but  $ioi.5O.15 
The  law  was  repealed  four  years  later. 

Act  of  February  n,  1832.™ — In  February,  1832,  a  law  was 
enacted  repealing  the  foregoing  act,  and  conferring  power  on 
the  people  of  the  different  townships  to  elect,  on  the  third  Mon- 
day in  December  of  every  year,  three  fit  persons,  to  be  called 
commissioners  of  the  sixteenth  sections,  to  take  charge  of  the 
said  sections  in  their  respective  townships,  with  the  power  to 
protect  them  from  waste  and  intrusion,  to  rent  them  out  for 
the  term  of  one  year  for  "  the  use  of  schools  in  said  township," 
and,  like  the  trustees  authorized  to  be  appointed  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  preceding  act,  to  "  select  on  each  sixteenth  section 
aforesaid  a  suitable  number  of  acres  in  one  body,  not  to  exceed 
20,  as  they  may  think  proper  for  the  erection  of  a  schoolhouse." 
The  compensation  allowed  these  commissioners  was  "five  per 
cent  of  all  moneys  collected." 

Act  of  February  15,  1834.^ — In  February,  1834,  an  act  was 

14  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1828,  pp.  247-48. 

15  See  message  of  Governor  R.  K.  Call,  House  Journal,  Territory  of 
Florida,  1843,  p.  19;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  p.  22. 

16  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1832,  pp.  124-25. 

17  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1834,  p.  37. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN   FLORIDA  7 

passed  which  authorized  the  judges  of  the  several  county  courts 
to  appoint  two  suitable  persons,  entitled  commissioners  of  the 
sixteenth  sections,  to  take  charge  of  the  said  sections  in  their 
respective  counties,  with  powers  similar  to  those  conferred  on 
the  commissioners  authorized  by  the  act  of  1832.  Whether  this 
act,  or  that  of  1832,  was  ever  duly  executed,  we  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain.  Speaking  of  the  operation  of  the  one  for  1834, 
however,  Governor  R.  K.  Call,  in  his  message  to  the  legislative 
council  of  i843,18  said:  "  How  far  this  law  has  been  carried 
into  effect,  does  not  appear  from  any  data  within  my  possession, 
but  I  have  reason  to  believe  that,  in  many  of  the  counties,  at 
least,  no  attention  whatever  has  been  paid  to  it." 

Act  of  December  26,  1835** — In  1835  the  register  of  the  land 
office  was  duly  authorized  and  directed  to  select  and  secure  the 
various  lands  reserved  by  Congress  "  for  schools,  seminaries,  and 
other  purposes,"  and  required  to  keep  the  different  reservations 
distinct  and  separate  in  his  accounts,  in  order  that  the  rights 
and  interests  of  one  should  not  become  mixed  with  the  rights 
and  interests  of  the  others.'' 

Acts  of  1836  and  1837. — In  1836,  by  act  approved  February 
I3,20  the  territorial  treasurer  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  re- 
ceiving and  demanding  all  money  then  due,  or  which  might  there- 
after become 'due,  for  the  rent  of  any  of  the  school  lands  within 
the  Territory;  and  by  an  act  approved  February  12  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,21  he  was  directed  to  seek  out  and  prosecute  all 
trespassers  of  any  of  the  school  lands,  to  get  possession  for  the 
Territory  of  any  of  these  lands  that  were  illegally  occupied,  and  to 
rent  them  out  for  the  period  of  one  year.  He  was  also  required 
by  both  of  these  acts  to  make  an  annual  report  of  his  proceedings 
to  the  legislative  council. 

Neither  of  these  acts  seems  to  have  been  well  executed.  As 
Governor  Call  said,22  the  nature  of  the  duties  already  imposed 
on  the  treasurer,  whose  office  and  presence  necessarily  had  to  be 
at  the  capitol,  rendered  it  almost  impossible  for  him  to  give  the 

18  See  H.  J.,  1843,  p.  19 ;  also  S.  J.,  p.  23. 

19  For  this  act  see  Thompson's  Digest  of  the  Statute  Law  of  Florida, 
1847,  p.  40. 

20  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1836,  pp.  42-43. 

21  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1837,  pp.  24-25. 

22  See  his  message  to  the  legislative  council  of  1843. 


8  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

attention  to  these  additional  duties  which  their  importance 
required. 

Acts  of  183$. — The  legislative  council  of  1839  was  the  first 
to  undertake  the  actual  establishment  of  a  public-school  system. 
On  March  2,  1839,  there  was  passed  an  act  for  perfecting  a 
legal  organization  to  utilize  the  benefits  accruing  from  the  six- 
teenth-section, or  common  school,  lands.23  This  directed  that 
three  trustees  be  elected  in  each  township  to  care  for  and  lease 
the  sixteenth-section  lands  of  their  township,  to  apply  the  income 
to  the  support  of  common  schools  in  that  township,  and,  in  case 
there  were  no  common  schools  in  existence,  to  establish  and 
maintain  them. 

On  the  same  day  the  foregoing  law  was  enacted  an  act  supple- 
mentary to  it  was  passed,24  entitled  "  An  act  to  raise  a  fund  for 
the  education  of  poor  children."  This  provided  that  two  per 
cent25  of  the  territorial  tax  and  auction  duties  to  be  collected 
should  be  used  "  for  the  education  of  poor  orphan  children  of 
the  county  to  which  the  funds  belong."  The  tax  assessors  were 
directed  to  take  the  census  of  the  orphans  in  their  respective 
counties  and  file  the  same  in  their  county  court  for  the  informa- 
tion of  the  county.  The  county  courts  were  to  appropriate  the 
funds  annually  "  for  the  schooling  of  the  poor  orphans  of  their 
county,  having  a  reasonable  regard,  as  near  as  may  be,  to  an 
equal  distribution  among  all  the  poor  orphans  brought  to  the  no- 
tice of  the  court  .  .  .  ,  and  having  also  a  due  regard  to  the  most 
economical  disbursement  of  the  funds." 

Acts  of  1843  and  1844. — In  *843,  by  act  approved  March  I5,26 
the  sheriffs  of  the  several  counties  were  entrusted  with  the  du- 
ties which  had  been  conferred  on  the  trustees  authorized  by 
the  school  law  of  1839,  and  with  special  instructions  to  look  after 
the  education  of  the  poor  children  of  their  respective  counties. 
On  March  15  of  the  following  year,  however,  there  was  enacted 
a  law27  giving  the  electors  in  each  township  the  power  to  elect 
three  school  trustees  and  one  treasurer,  these  trustees  being  au- 
thorized to  lease  the  school  lands  of  their  township  and  to  apply 

23  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1876,  p.  62. 
2*  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1839,  pp.  15-16. 

25  By  act  of  February  25,  1840,  this  was  increased  to  ten. 

26  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1843,  pp.  34-36. 

27  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1844,  pp.  61-65. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  IN   FLORIDA  9 

the  rents  or  profits  to  the  use  of  common  schools  in  that  town- 
ship. The  townships  were  also  empowered  to  unite  with  one 
another  for  the  purpose  of  holding  their  school  lands  in  common. 

Acts  of  1845.—  On  March  10,  1845,  there  was  passed  an  act 
which  made  some  changes  and  improvements  in  the  school  law.28 
Among  other  things,  it  provided  that  "  the  judges  of  the  county 
courts  of  the  several  counties  of  the  Territory  "  should  officiate 
as  "  superintendents  of  common  schools  in  their  respective  coun- 
ties." They  were  entrusted  with  partial  supervision  of  the  school 
trustees,  and  directed  to  perform  some  of  the  present  functions 
of  a  county  school  superintendent.  The  trustees  were  required 
to  make  a  report  to  the  judges,  on  or  before  the  first  Monday  in 
December  of  each  year,  on  all  matters  committed  to  their  charge. 
The  judges  were  to  consolidate  these  returns  and  forward  them 
to  the  secretary  of  the  Territory,  who  was  to  embody  them  in 
his  report  to  the  legislative  council. 

On  July  25  of  that  same  year  an  act  was  passed29  authorizing 
the  governor  to  select,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an 
act  of  Congress  approved  June  15,  i844,30  other  lands  in  place  of 
any  sixteenth-section  lands  included  in  private  claims.  He  was 
also  authorized  by  this  act  to  obtain  from  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States  the  money  to  which  Florida  was  entitled  by  the 
congressional  act  of  June  23,  :836,31  known  as  "  An  act  to  reg- 
ulate the  deposits  of  public  money,"  said  money  to  be  forever 
and  inviolably  pledged  to  purposes  of  education.32  Under  this 
same  act,  the  net  proceeds  of  all  escheated  estates  were  ordered 
to  be  invested  and  the  income  used  for  the  benefit  of  public 
education. 

28  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  Twenty-third  Session    (the  last 
session  under  the  territorial  government),  1845,  pp.  20-22. 

29  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida,  First  Session,  June- 
July,  1845,  p.  40. 

30  By  this  act  the  Territory  had  been  given  the  power,  where  the  six- 
teenth sections  were  covered  by  private  claims,  to  select  other  adjacent 
lands,  within  the  land  district,  which  had  been  offered  at  public  sale  but 
remained  unsold.    For  this  act  see  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  V,  666. 

81  For  this  act  see  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  V,  55. 

32  The  legislative  council  had  been  informed  that  Florida  was  entitled 
to  the  sum  of  $382,335.30  as  her  share  of  the  surplus  revenue  in  the 
national  treasury  (see  House  Journal,  1845,  j,»».  50-51)  ;  but  as  far  as 
can  be  ascertained  she  never  received  any  of  the  said  revenue. 


10  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

Legal  Organisation  of  the  School  System  in  1845. — Summariz- 
ing the  early  educational  legislation  in  Florida,  we  find  that  the 
legal  organization  of  her  school  system  in  1845  may  be  briefly 
outlined  as  follows: 

The  administration  of  the  schools  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
a  board  of  trustees  for  each  township,  the  judges  of  the  county 
courts,  and  the  secretary  of  the  Territory.  The  trustees,  who 
were  elected  by  popular  vote,  were  directed  to  care  for  and  rent 
out  the  sixteenth-section  lands,  appropriate  the  revenue  to  educa- 
tional purposes,  establish  and  maintain  schools,  and  to  do  what- 
ever was  related  to  the  welfare  of  the  schools  in  their  township. 
They  were  also  directed  to  report  annually  to  the  judges  of  their 
county  the  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  schools,  the  num- 
ber of  children  enrolled,  the  various  subjects  taught,  and  such 
other  information  as  they  might  think  expedient.  The  judges 
of  the  county  courts  were  to  serve  as  school  superintendents  in 
their  respective  counties.  As  such  they  were  to  see  that  the 
sixteenth-section  lands  were  properly  cared  for,  that  the  income 
derived  from  them  was  inviolably  appropriated  to  the  use  of 
schools,  and  to  have  the  oversight  of  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  advancement  of  the  schools.  They  were  also  to  make  an 
annual  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  Territory  concerning  the 
condition  of  common-school  education  in  their  respective  counties. 
There  was  no  territorial  board  of  education  or  school  superintend- 
ent. The  secretary  of  the  Territory  was  the  only  territorial 
officer  with  any  school  duties,  and  his  work  in  connection  with 
the  schools  was  simply  to  revise  the  reports  of  the  county  judges 
and  lay  the  results  before  the  legislative  council.  Beyond  this 
there  was  no  provision  for  any  centralized  control  or  supervision 
of  the  schools.  The  administration  of  the  schools,  therefore,  was 
almost  entirely  local,  the  unit  of  organization  being  the  township. 

The  common  schools  were  to  be  sustained  by  the  income  from 
four  sources  —  the  sixteenth-section  lands,  the  net  proceeds  of 
all  escheated  property,  the  funds  to  be  obtained  from  the  national 
treasury  under  the  surplus  revenue  act,  and  ten  per  cent  of  all 
the  territorial  tax  and  auction  duties  that  might  be  received,33 

33  The  Territory  also  assisted  education  by  means  of  lotteries.  In  1834 
Quincy  Academy  was  authorized  to  raise  twelve  hundred  dollars  by  this 
means  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1834,  p.  56).  That  same  year  the  mayor 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  H 

the  income  from  this  last  source  to  be  used  "  for  the  education 
of  poor  orphan  children."  There  seems  to  have  been  no  pro- 
vision whatever  for  a  tax  for  the  support  of  schools.  However, 
the  income  from  the  above  sources  appears  to  have  been  sup- 
plemented by  tuition  fees,  which  were  charged  all  children  except 
those  of  the  poor;  at  any  rate,  there  was  no  requisition  that  the 
schools  should  be  free,  except  to  the  poor. 

There  were  no  provisions  regarding  the  erection  and  care 
of  school  buildings,  the  length  of  the  school  term,  the  branches 
to  be  taught,  the  textbooks  to  be  used,  the  certification  of  teachers, 
and  several  other  important  matters.  There  was  no  provision 
even  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers,  except  that  of  an 
act  approved  February  n,  i838,3*  making  it  the  "duty  of  the 
county  court,  in  each  respective  county  of  the  Territory,  immedi- 
ately upon  the  organization  of  the  Dade  Institute,35  of  Florida, 
to  send  one  young  man  to  the  said  institute,  to  be  educated  as 
a  schoolmaster,  from  the  county  from  which  he  shall  be  sent." 

Actual  Gains  to  Public  Education,  1822-1845. — Having  thus 
summarized  the  legislation  in  Florida  relative  to  the  sixteenth- 
section  lands  for  the  period  from  1822  to  1845,  and  having  also 
noticed  the  form  of  legal  organization  that  was  perfected  for 
utilizing  the  benefits  to  be  derived  therefrom,  it  now  seems 
proper  to  review  and  take  stock  of  the  actual  gains  to  the  cause 
of  public-school  education  during  this  period. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  abundant  legal  provision  appears 
to  have  been  made  for  securing  considerable  public-school  revenue 
from  the  sixteenth-section  lands  reserved  by  Congress  for  public- 
school  purposes.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  laws  respecting 
these  lands  seem  never  to  have  been  faithfully  executed.  In  fact, 
in  many  instances  they  were  not  even  put  into  operation.  Gov- 
ernor W.  D.  Moseley,  in  his  message  to  the  general  assembly 
of  1846,  said  that  the  laws  had  been  so  poorly  enforced  that 
trespassers  of  the  school  lands  had  been  enjoying,  "without 
even  reproach,"  their  "  ill-gotten  gains." 36  He  also  stated  that 

and  aldermen  of  St.  Augustine  were  empowered  to  raise  ten  thousand 
dollars  by  a  like  device  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a 
free  school  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1834,  p.  64). 

34  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1838,  p.  60. 

35  This  school  was  chartered  the  same  day.     For  the  act  chartering  it 
see  Laws  of  Florida,  1838,  pp.  64-67. 

3«  Vide  H.  J.,  1846-47,  P.  8;  also  S.  J.,  p.  7. 


12  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

the  money  which  had  been  received  from  the  rent  of  the  school 
lands  had  been  "  not  only  wholly  useless,  but  what  is  much  more 
humiliating,  shamefully  neglected  or  criminally  squandered."37 
It  is  quite  evident,  therefore,  that  very  few,  if  any,  of  the  town- 
ships got  much  benefit  from  their  sixteenth-section  lands.  How- 
ever, as  to  the  amount  of  money  actually  used  for  the  support 
of  schools,  there  appears  to  be  no  record. 

As  we  have  also  seen,  by  the  close  of  the  period  a  fairly 
good  school  law  had  been  perfected ;  but,  like  the  other  legislation 
that  we  have  noticed,  there  were  many  townships  in  which  it 
was  never  carried  into  effect.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  only 
a  very  few  strictly  public  schools  were  ever  established,38  the 
principal  ones  being  the  Monroe  County  School,39  located  at 
Key  West,  and  the  Franklin  County  School ; 40  and  but  few  of 
these  were  entirely  free,  except  to  the  poor  children.  In  con- 
sequence, they  were  probably  of  brief  annual  duration,  and  at- 
tended almost  wholly  by  orphans  and  children  of  indigent  parents. 

It  may  be  asked:  "Where  did  the  children  of  the  wealthier 
class  of  people  receive  their  instruction?"  Of  course,  some  of 
them  attended  the  common  schools  of  Florida;  but,  for  the  most 
part,  they  were  sent  to  schools  of  the  Territory  known  as  acade- 
mies, institutes,  and  so  forth.  And,  as  in  the  case  of  the  common 
schools,  the  records  of  these  institutions  are  very  meager,  but  we 
have  enough  data  to  show  their  existence.  It  seems  that  they 
were  mainly  primary  and  secondary  schools  combined,  and  in 
most  cases  they  were  probably  more  primary  than  secondary. 
The  leading  ones,  together  with  the  date  of  their  incorporation, 
were  as  follows :  Leon  Academy,  1831 ;  Pensacola  Academy,  1831 ; 
Jefferson  Academy,  1832 ;  Quincy  Academy,  1832 ;  Bethel  Acad- 
emy, 1832;  Marianna  Academy,  1833;  St.  Augustine  Free  School, 
1834;  Calhoun  Academy,  Leon  County,  1836;  Gadsden  Academy, 

37  Ibid.,  pp.  7  and  6,  respectively. 

38  In  1840,  according  to  the  United  States  census  report  for  that  year, 
there  were  but  51  common  schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  only  925. 

39  This  school  was  incorporated  March  14,  1844  (see  act  entitled  "An 
act  to  organize  the  Monroe  County  School,"  in  Laws  of  Florida,  1844). 

40 This  school  was  incorporated  March  15,  1844  (see  act  entitled  "An 
act  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of  a  public  school  in  the  county  of 
Franklin,"  in  Laws  of  Florida,  1844).  It  was  "for  the  education  in 
rudimental  branches  of  the  poor  children  of  said  county."  Tuition  was 
free. 


RISE   OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  IN   FLORIDA  13 

1837;  Southern  College,  St.  Augustine,  1837;  St.  Andrews  Col- 
lege, Washington  County,  1838;  Dade  Institute,  1838;  Oscilla 
Academy,  1839;  Maccasukie  Academy,  1839;  Calhoun  Academy, 
Madison  County,  1839;  Alachua  Academy,  1839;  St.  Joseph 
Academy,  1840;  Cherry  Lake  Academy,  1841;  Hamilton  Acad- 
emy, 1841 ;  Salem  Academy,  1841 ;  West  Florida  Collegiate 
Institute,  1844;  and  Leon  Female  Academy,  1845. 

What  then  were  the  actual  gains  to  public-school  education 
in  Florida  during  this  period?  Unfortunately  we  have  very 
little  data  concerning  the  various  phases  of  public  education.  In 
fact,  as  Dr.  A.  D.  Mayo^tells  us,41  there  appears  to  have  been 
but  little  to  report  with  regard  to  the  result  of  the  first  attempts 
to  plant  the  common  school  in  Florida.  And  this  is  what  one 
would  naturally  expect,  considering  the  large  amount  of  un- 
explored territory,  the  sparseness  of  the  population,  the  lack  of 
wealth,  and  the  barbarous  effects  of  the  Indian  war  waged  in 
the  Territory.  But  the  history  of  the  public  school  in  Florida 
from  1822  to  1845  is  to  be  understood  not  so  much  by  the  results 
actually  achieved,  such  as  the  number  of  schools  taught,  children 
enrolled,  teachers  employed,  and  the  like,  as  by  the  growth  of  the 
idea  of  universal  education.  Viewed  from  this  angle,  we  find, 
from  the  number  of  educational  societies  established,  the  legis- 
lation passed  with  respect  to  the  school  lands,  and  the  school 
law  that  was  evolved,  that  by  1845  Florida  had  at  least  taken  a 
step  in  the  direction  of  education  for  the  masses;  and  this  com- 
pares favorably  with  what  was  accomplished  in  any  of  the  other 
Southern  States. 

SUMMARY 

Very  little,  if  any,  public  interest  in  education  in  Florida  seems 
to  have  been  manifested  until  1831.  That  year  some  public- 
spirited  citizens  of  Tallahassee,  deploring  the  educational  con- 
ditions of  the  Territory,  organized  what  was  called  the  Florida 
Education  Society.  The  main  object  of  this  society,  together 
with  its  branches,  which  were  formed  in  several  town?  in  the 
Territory,  was  to  diffuse  information  on  the  educational  status 

41  Mayo,  A.  D.,  "  The  Organization  and  Development  of  the  Amer- 
ican Common  School  in  the  Atlantic  and  Central  States  of  the  South, 
1830  to  1860  " ;  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 1899-1900,  Vol.  I,  p.  491. 


14  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

and  needs  of  the  people,  and  to  pave  the  way  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  general  system  of  instruction.  These  societies  aroused 
an  interest  in  education  seldom  seen  in  a  new  and  sparsely 
settled  region.  A  number  of  schools  were  immediately  estab- 
lished, the  principal  ones  being  the  schools  at  St.  Augustine  and 
the  manual-labor  school  at  Tallahassee.  Unfortunately  the  ardor 
of  this  progressive  spirit  seems  to  have  soon  subsided.  In  a  few 
years  the  societies  themselves  ceased  to  exist,  and  we  have  no 
record  that  any  others  were  established  in  their  place. 

Just  what  was  attempted  with  reference  to  public  schools  in 
the  territory  of  Florida  can  perhaps  best  be  seen  by  noticing 
the  school  legislation.  A  number  of  laws  were  passed,  the  main 
ones  being  those  pertaining  to  the  sixteenth-section  lands  which 
had  been  reserved  by  Congress  for  common-school  purposes. 
The  first  act  of  the  legislative  council  for  the  preservation 
of  these  sixteenth-section,  or  common-school,  lands  was  passed 
in  1828.  Other  acts  regarding  the  preservation  of  these  lands 
were  passed  in  1832,  1834,  and  1835.  But  no  attempt  was  made 
by  the  territorial  authorities  to  utilize  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
therefrom  until  1839,  when  the  first  school  law  was  enacted. 
This  directed  that  three  trustees  should  be  chosen  in  each  town- 
ship to  care  for  and  lease  the  school  lands  and  to  apply  the  in- 
come accruing  from  the  same  to  the  instruction  of  the  children. 
Several  amendments  to  this  law  were  made,  the  principal  one 
being  that  of  1845.  That  year  there  was  authorized  a  partial 
supervision  of  the  action  of  the  township  trustees  by  the  county 
judges,  who  were  to  act  as  superintendents  of  common  schools 
in  their  respective  counties.  The  trustees  were  directed  to  report 
annually  to  the  judges,  who  were  to  consolidate  the  returns  and 
submit  them  to  the  secretary  of  the  Territory,  by  whom  the  re- 
sults were  to  be  laid  before  the  legislative  council. 

Just  what  was  actually  accomplished  by  the  efforts  to  estab- 
lish a  general  system  of  instruction  in  the  Territory  of  Florida, 
no  one  can  say,  on  account  of  the  meager  records  we  have.  As 
far  as  we  can  learn,  only  a  few  real  public  schools  were  ever  es- 
tablished. The  chief  gain  seems  to  have  been  in  getting  the 
people  to  see  the  importance  of  public  education. 


CHAPTER    II 

RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORID  A  -Concluded 
II.     BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

Having  noted  the  efforts  that  were  made  to  plant  a  system 
of  public  schools  in  Florida,  while  it  was  still  a  territory,  let  us 
now  turn  our  attention  to  a  summary  of  the  efforts  made  from 
1845,  tne  year  it  became  a  state,  until  1869,  when  the  present 
public-school  system  was  established.  In  the  first  place,  let  us 
examine  the  educational  provisions  of  the  constitution  of  the 
State  and  of  various  acts  of  the  legislature. 

A.  Constitutional  and  Legal  Provisions 

Constitution  of  1845. — The  first  constitution  of  Florida,1 
adopted  on  the  third  day  of  March,  i845,2  nad  the  following 
provisions  concerning  education :  3 

"'Section  i.  The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been,  or  may  here- 
after be,  granted  by  the  United  States  for  the  use  of  schools  and  a  sem- 
inary or  seminaries  of  learning,  shall  be  and  remain  a  perpetual  fund,  the 
interest  of  which,  together  with  all  moneys  derived  from  any  other  source 
applicable  to  the  same  object,  shall  be  inviolably  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  schools  and  seminaries  of  learning,  respectively,  and  to  no  other 
purpose. 

"  Section  2.  The  general  assembly  shall  take  such  measures  as  may 
be  necessary  to  preserve  from  waste  or  damage  all  lands  so  granted  and 
appropriated  to  the  purpose  of  education." 

As  may  be  seen,  the  constitution  of  Florida  for  1845,  like 
many  of  the  other  early  state  constitutions,  gave  but  scant  rec- 

1  For  this  constitution  see  The  Federal  and  State  Constitutions,  Colonial 
Charters,  and  Other  Organic  Laws  (compiled  and  edited  by  Francis  New- 
ton Thorpe),  Vol.  II. 

2  It  was  framed  by  a  convention  which  met  at  the  old  town  of  St. 
Joseph,  in  Calhoun  County,  from  December  3,  1838,  to  January  n,  1839; 
and  was  at  once  presented  to  Congress,  but  was  not  adopted  until  1845. 
when  Florida  was  admitted  to  the  Union. 

3  Article  X.     This  article   was   repeated   almost  verbatim   in  the  con- 
stitutions of  1861  and  1865. 

in 


16  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

ognition  to  education.  It  contained  only  two  brief  passages  on 
the  subject;  and  these,  like  the  early  educational  legislation  of 
Florida,  dealt  almost  exclusively  with  the  public  lands  "granted 
by  the  United  States  for  the  use  of  schools  and  a  seminary  or 
seminaries  of  learning."  The  main  object  of  its  educational  pro- 
visions was  "to  preserve  from  waste  or  damage  all  lands  so 
granted  and  appropriated  .  .  . ." 

Acts  of  1847  and  1848. — The  sixteenth-section  lands,  908,503 
acres  in  all,4  which  the  Federal  Government  had  reserved  —  not 
granted  —  to  Florida  on  its  organization  as  a  territory  for  the 
use  of  common  schools,  were  granted  to  it  on  its  admission  as 
a  state.  The  oversight  and  control  of  them,  during  both  the  ter- 
ritorial period  and  the  first  two  years  of  statehood,  was  confided 
largely  to  the  township  trustees.  But  by  an  act  approved  Jan- 
uary 6,  i847,5  this  power  was  placed  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  register  of  public  lands  of  the  state  of  Florida,  an  office 
established  in  December,  i845.6  As  before,  though,  none  of  the 
sixteenth  sections  could  be  sold,  but  simply  rented  or  leased. 
Now,  the  system  of  renting  or  leasing  proved  very  unprofitable 
and  unsatisfactory;  so  the  legislature  of  1847-48,  complying  with 
the  recommendation  of  Governor  W.  D.  Moseley,7  memorialized 
Congress  for  permission  to  sell  the  said  lands,  on  condition  that 
the  proceeds  thereof  would  be  invested  in  some  permanent  fund, 
and  the  proceeds  of  such  fund  applied  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  granted  to  the  State,  and  to  no  other  use  or  purpose 
whatever.  This  permission  being  granted,  the  following  legis- 
lature, by  an  act  approved  December  28,  1848,®  directed  that  the 
sixteenth-section  lands  be  sold  by  the  register  of  public  lands,  and 
that  the  proceeds  thereof  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  State  for 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  state  common-school  fund — 
the  first  attempt  to  make  public  education  a  state  affair. 

School  Legislation  of  1849. — The  first  law,  after  the  admission 
of  Florida  to  the  Union,  to  provide  for  a  system  of  public  in- 

4  See  The  Public  Domain;  Its  History,  with  Statistics   (compiled  by 
Thomas  Corwin  Donaldson),  Chap.  XIII. 

5  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1846-47,  pp.  47-49. 

6  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1845,  Chap.  54. 

7  See  his  message  to  the  legislature  of  1847-48,  in  the  House  Journal, 
State  of  Florida,  1847-48,  pp.  14-15 ;  also  in  the  Senate  Journal,  pp.  12-13. 

8  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1848-49,  Chap.  230. 


RISE   OF   THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  17 

struction  was  enacted  January  10,  1849.°  This  law  authorized 
the  establishment  of  common  schools,  whose  doors  were  to  be 
open  to  all  white  children  of  the  State  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  eighteen.  The  overhead  control  of  the  system  was  entrusted 
to  the  register  of  the  land  office,  who  was  directed  to  act  as 
state  superintendent  of  schools,  the  judges  of  probate,  who  were 
directed  to  act  as  superintendents  of  schools  for  their  respective 
counties,  and  local  boards  of  trustees,  who  were  to  be  elected 
annually  by  the  taxpayers  of  the  various  school  districts.  The 
duties  of  the  state  superintendent  were:  (i)  to  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  governor;  (2)  to  apportion  annually  the  school 
moneys  to  be  distributed  among  the  different  counties;  (3)  to 
certify  each  apportionment  to  the  comptroller  of  the  State,  and 
to  inform  each  county  superintendent  at  once  as  to  the  amount 
and  date  of  payment  of  the  apportionment  made  to  his  county; 
(4)  to  have  printed  and  distributed  to  the  several  counties  forms 
and  instructions  on  all  matters  relative  to  the  schools;  (5)  to 
decide  appeals  and  controversies  due  to  the  operation  of  the  act ; 
and  (6)  to  perform  such  other  duties  required  of  him.  The 
chief  duties  of  a  county  superintendent  were:  (i)  to  divide 
his  county  into  a  suitable  number  of  school  districts;  (2)  to 
apportion  annually  the  school  money  received  by  him  among  the 
various  districts  of  his  county;  (3)  to  examine  and  certificate 
teachers;  (4)  to  visit  the  schools  at  least  once  a  year,  and  en- 
deavor to  promote  an  interest  on  the  part  of  all  in  public-school 
education;  and  (5)  to  make  a  report  to  the  state  superintendent 
between  July  i  and  October  i  of  each  year.  And  finally,  the 
principal  duties  of  the  school-district  trustees  were :  ( I )  to  make 
out  the  tax  list  for  their  respective  districts,  and,  when  deemed 
necessary,  to  call  special  meetings  of  the  taxpayers;  (2)  to  ap- 
portion among  the  different  schools  the  moneys  received  by  dis- 
trict taxation;  (3)  to  purchase  or  lease  sites  for  district  school- 
houses;  (4)  to  have  custody  of  the  school  property;  (5)  to 
make  out  rate  bills,  or  tuition  fees;  (6)  to  employ  teachers  and 
pay  them  their  wages;  and  (7)  to  make  an  annual  report  to 
the  county  superintendent  regarding  (a)  the  length  of  time  the 
various  schools  were  taught,  (b)  the  amount  of  money  received 
and  expended,  (c)  the  number  of  white  children  of  school  age 

0  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1848-49,  Chap.  229. 


18  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

residing  in  the  district,  on  December  i  prior  to  the  report,  and 
(d)  the  number  of  children  that  attended  school. 

On  the  day  before  the  passage  of  the  foregoing  law,  there 
was  passed  an  act  "  for  the  increase,  investment,  safe-keeping, 
and  disbursement  of  the  common-school  fund."  10  The  aim  of 
this  act,  of  course,  was  to  make  better  provisions  for  the  support 
of  the  common  schools.  It  directed  that  the  five  per  cent  re- 
ceived from  the  United  States  for  the  sale  of  public  lands  within 
the  State,11  the  proceeds  of  all  escheated  estates,  the  net  pro- 
ceeds "  of  all  property  found  on  the  coasts  or  shores  of  the  State, 
or  brought  into  the  State  or  its  ports  as  wreck  or  derelict  of  the 
seas,"  and  all  other  property  thereafter  granted  for  the  purposes 
of  common-school  education,  should  be  added  to  the  school  fund  ;12 
that  the  proceeds  of  the  fund  should  be  paid  to  the  treasurer  of 
the  State,  who  was  "  to  keep  a  separate  and  distinct  account  of 
all  receipts  and  disbursements  on  account  of  the  school  fund;" 
and  that  the  comptroller  should  invest  the  same  in  either  the 
state  or  United  States  stocks.  The  interest  accruing  from  this 
fund,  according  to  the  law  noticed  above,  was  to  be  distributed 
among  the  various  counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  white 
children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen  attending  school 
therein. 

Acts  of  1850  and  1851. — One  of  the  weaknesses  of  the  school 
law  of  1849  was  that  it  was  too  restrictive  with  regard  to  the 
investment  of  the  school  fund.  It  limited  the  power  of  the 
comptroller  to  invest  in  Florida  and  United  States  stocks.  Now, 
as  State  Superintendent  Beard  pointed  out,13  Florida  had  no 
stocks,  and  those  of  the  United  States  were  so  high  that  it  was 
not  expedient  to  purchase  them.  On  December  31,  i85O,14  this 
weakness  was  remedied  by  the  passage  of  an  act  which  em- 
powered the  comptroller  to  invest  the  school  fund  in  the  stocks 

10  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1848^49,  Chap.  231. 

11  Known  as  the  "  five  per  cent  fund." 

12  When  the  state  common-school  fund  was  first  established,  Decem- 
ber 28,  1848,  it  consisted  only  of  the  proceeds  of   the  sixteenth-section 
lands,  or  of  other  lands  selected  in  lieu  thereof. 

13  See  Annual  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands  and  State  Super- 
intendent of  Schools,  in  the  House  Journal,   State  of   Florida,   1850-51, 
appendix,  51 ;  also  in  the  Senate  Journal,  appendix,  12. 

14  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  338. 


RISE   OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  19 

of  Florida  or  other  states  of  the  Union,  or  to  loan  the  same  to 
qjty  or  county  authorities  within  the  State. 

Another  weakness  of  the  law  was  its  failure  to  make  adequate 
provision  for  the  support  of  the  schools.  However,  in  1851  three 
attempts  were  made  to  remedy  this.  The  first  was  on  January  6, 
when  the  counties  were  authorized,  for  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  Florida,  to  levy  a  tax  on  both  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty for  the  support  of  the  common  schools ;  but  the  amount  levied 
could  not  exceed  four  dollars  annually  for  each  child  of  school 
age.15  This  limit  seems  to  have  been  unnecessary  for,  as  far  as 
can  be  ascertained,  only  a  few  counties  ever  levied  any  school 
tax  whatever.16  The  "second  attempt  was  on  January  u,  when 
an  act  was  approved  which  required  that  the  proceeds  "  derived 
from  the  sale  of  slaves  under  the  act  of  November  22,  1829," 
should  be  added  to  the  school  fund.17  This,  however,  was  re- 
pealed two  years  later.  And  finally,  the  'third  attempt  was  on 
January  24,  when  provision  was  made  for  increasing  the  school 
fund  from  the  state  treasury.18  The  law  enacted  provided  that 
in  all  counties  where  the  money  arising  from  the  interest  of  the 
school  fund  was  not  sufficient  to  allow  two  dollars  to  be  given 
annually  for  the  education  of  each  child  the  state  superintendent 
should  notify  the  comptroller  of  the  amount  of  said  deficiency, 
and  also  of  the  amount  required  by  each  county  superintendent 
to  make  up  the  deficiency  in  his  county ;  and  that  the  treasurer, 
on  the  warrant  of  the  comptroller,  should  pay  to  the  several 
county  superintendents  the  amount  of  said  deficiency.  But  in 
the  distribution  of  this  school  money  no  share  was  to  be  allowed 
for  any  child  who  had  not  attended  school  for  at  least  three 
months  within  the  year  just  preceding  the  time  at  which  the 
distribution  was  to  be  made.19 

School  Law  of  1853. — On  January  I,  1853,  another  school  law 
was  enacted,20  which  was  more  detailed  and  specific  than  the 

15  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  343. 

16  See  House  Journal,  State  of  Florida,  1854-55,  appendix,  6-S ;  also 
Senate  Journal,  appendix,  6-8. 

17  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  341. 

18  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  339. 

19  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  340. 

20  See   Laws   of   Florida,   1852-53,   Chap.   510;   also   Laws  Relating  to 
Common  Schools  in  the  State  of  Florida   (printed  by  order  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  in  1860),  pp.  3-7. 


20  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

one  of  1849.  By  this  law  the  control  and  direction  of  the 
schools  was  given  to  the  register  of  public  lands,  the  county 
commissioners,  the  judges  of  probate,  and  local  trustees. 

At  the  head  of  the  system  was  the  register  of  public  lands, 
who  was  declared  ex  officio  superintendent  of  schools  for  the 
State.  As  superintendent  of  schools,  he  had  general  supervision 
of  all  the  common-school  interests  of  the  State.  His  chief  duties 
were:  (i)  to  ascertain,  on  the  first  day  of  July  of  each  year, 
from  the  comptroller  and  treasurer  of  the  State,  the  amount  of 
school  money  to  be  distributed,  and  thereupon  apportion  it  among 
the  various  counties;21  (2)  to  certify  the  same,  at  once,  to  the 
comptroller,  and  also  notify  each  county  superintendent  of  the 
apportionment  made  to  his  county;  (3)  to  have  printed  and 
transmitted  to  the  several  county  superintendents  such  forms  and 
instructions  as  he  deemed  requisite ;  and  (4)  to  make  a  biennial 
report  to  the  governor  as  to  (a)  the  condition  of  the  schools, 
(b)  the  school  receipts  and  expenditures,  (c)  plans  for  enlarging 
and  administering  the  school  fund,  and  for  improving  the  schools 
in  general,  (d)  the  number  of  children  in  each  county  between 
five  and  eighteen  years  of  age,  (<?)  the  number  of  children  that 
attended  school  in  each  county  during  the  year,  and  (/)  all  other 
matters  pertaining  to  his  office  which  he  considered  expedient 
to  report. 

The  management  of  the  educational  affairs  of  each  of  the 
counties  was  intrusted  to  the  county  commissioners  and  judge 
of  probate,  who  were  made  ex  officio  a  county  board  of  educa- 
tion and  county  superintendent  of  schools,  respectively.  As  a 
school  board,  the  county  commissioners  were  authorized  and  di- 
rected: (i)  to  supplement  the  sum  received  from  the  State  by 
any  sum  from  the  county  treasury  which  they  thought  proper 
for  the  support  of  common  schools;  (2)  to  apportion  the 
whole  amount  applicable  to  school  purposes  among  the  different 
school  districts  within  the  county ;  ( 3 )  to  establish  and  maintain 
schools;  (4)  to  designate  the  length  of  time  the  schools  were 

21  By  act  approved  December  22,  1859,  the  school  law  of  1853  was 
amended  so  as  to  require  the  superintendent  of  schools  for  the  State 
to  pay,  upon  demand,  "the  amount  of  school  money  apportioned  annually 
to  each  county  to  the  judge  of  probate  of  the  county,  to  be  appropriated 
as  required  by  law."  See  Laws  of  Florida,  Adjourned  Session,  1859, 
Chap.  ion. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  21 

to  be  taught;  (5)  to  select  from  among  the  patrons  three  trus- 
tees for  each  school;22  and  (6)  to  fix  the  remuneration  of  the 
county  superintendent,  and  also  the  total  sum  to  be  paid  the 
teachers. 23 

The  judge  of  probate,  as  the  principal  county  school  officer, 
was  declared  president  of  the  board  of  education  for  his  county. 
His  chief  duties,  in  addition  to  the  one  just  mentioned,  were: 
(i)  to  examine  and  employ  teachers;  (2)  to  direct  the  payment 
of  them  out  of  the  state  or  county  treasury;  (3)  to  discharge 
any  teacher  proved  to  be  "  incompetent,  immoral,  or  otherwise 
unfit  to  teach  " ;  and  (4)  to  make  a  report  to  the  state  superin- 
tendent, on  or  before  June  i  of  each  year,  specifying  (a)  the 
number  of  children  residing  in  his  county  between  the  ages  of 
five  and  eighteen  years,24  (b)  the  number  of  children  that  at- 
tended school  during  the  year,  (c)  the  length  of  time  each  teacher 
taught,  (d)  the  salary  of  each  teacher,  (e)  the  number  of  children 
each  one  taught,  together  with  the  length  of  time  each  child 
attended,25  (/)  the  amount  of  money  received  from  the  various 
sources  for  the  support  of  schools,  and  (g)  the  way  in  which 
the  school  revenue  was  expended. 

Such  were  the  provisions  of  the  school  law  of  1853,  which, 
as  State  Superintendent  Sheats  says,  "  took  a  step  as  far  in  the 

22  These  local  school  trustees  were  empowered  simply  to  hear  com- 
plaints from  the  teachers,  and  to  expel  any  pupil  failing  to  accommodate 
himself  to  the  requirements  of  the  school.     By  an  act  approved  Decem- 
ber 22,   1859,  however,  they  were  given  a  voice  in  the  selection  of  the 
teachers  for  their  school,   for  according  to  that  law  the  county  super- 
intendent was  allowed  to  employ  only  those  whom  they  recommended  (see 
Laws  of  Florida,  Adjourned  Session,  1859,  Chap.  ion). 

23  By  act  approved  January  15,  1859,  the  county  commissioners  of  each 
county  were  also  authorized  to  direct  the  payment  of  the  sum  to  which 
the  tax  assessor  was  entitled   for  taking  the   school  census  out  of  the 
treasury  of  the  county  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1858-59,  Chap.  879). 

24  It  was  the  duty  of  the  tax  assessor  to  take,  at  the  time  of  assessing 
the  taxes  of  his  county,  the  census  of  all  children  within  his  county  over 
five  and  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  report  the  same  on  or  before 
the  first  day  of  the  following  June,  and  every  year  thereafter.     For  this 
service  he  received  five  cents  for  each  child  that  was  reported. 

25  It  was  the  duty  of  the  teachers  to  report  to  their  county  super- 
intendent,  at  the   end   of  the   time   for  which  they  were  employed,  the 
number  of  children  that  had  attended  their  respective  schools,  the  name 
of  each  child,  and  the  number  of  days  that  each  one  had  attended. 


22  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

direction  of  adopting  a  system  of  free  schools  supported  by  tax- 
ation as  was  at  that  time  practicable  under  existing  conditions."  26 
After  this  no  effective  legislation  for  establishing  a  system  of 
public  free  schools  was  secured  until  the  adoption  of  the  consti- 
tution of  1868  and  the  enactment  of  the  school  law  of  1869, 
which  brought  about  the  establishment  of  the  present  public- 
school  system. 

B.  Results  Actually  Achieved,  1845-1868 

Educational  Accomplishment  Prior  to  1861. — Having  reviewed 
the  constitutional  and  principal  legal  provisions  for  public-school 
education  in  the  state  of  Florida  for  nearly  a  whole  generation 
immediately  following  the  admission  of  Florida  to  the  Union, 
the  next  question  to  be  considered  is:  What  were  the  actual 
gains  to  the  cause  during  the  period?  This  can  not  be  answered 
satisfactorily  because,  as  in  the  case  of  the  territorial  period, 
the  sources  of  information  are  so  incomplete  and  deficient  that 
it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  actual  gains.  But,  considering 
the  sparsity  of  the  population  and  the  poverty  of  the  people,27 
it  is  quite  evident  from  the  data  we  have  that  considerable  ed- 
ucational progress  was  made,  especially  from  1849  to  1861. 

Schools  and  School  Enrollment. — As  seen  above,  a  school  law 
fairly  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  people  and  the  conditions 
of  the  State  was  evolved.  At  first,  though,  it  was  put  into  oper- 
ation by  only  a  very  few  of  the  counties.  In  1850,  the  year 
following  the  passage  of  the  first  state  school  law,  Hon.  John 
Beard,  state  superintendent  of  schools,  speaking  of  the  public- 
school  system  in  his  annual  report,28  said:  "As  to  plans  for 
1  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  schools/  it  would  be  manifestly 
premature  and  idle  to  attempt  this  at  present.  There  must  be 
something  in  existence  to  act  on,  before  anything  can  be  predi- 
cated of  it  ... ."  Evidently,  therefore,  there  were  but  few 

26  See  Biennial  Report  of  the   Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
1892-94,  p.  7. 

27  In  1850,  according  to  the  United  States  census  report  of  that  year, 
the  total  white  population  of  the  State  was  but  47,203 — less  than  one  per- 
son to  a  square  mile;  and  the  true  value  of  all  property  amounted  to 
only  $22,862,270. 

28  For  this  report  see  House  Journal,   State  of  Florida,   1850-51,  ap- 
pendix, pp.  55-61 ;  also  Senate  Journal,  appendix,  pp.  12-18. 


RISE  OF  THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   IN   FLORIDA  23 

public  schools  at  that  time.  Just  how  many  there  were  we  can 
not  say.  We  learn  from  the  seventh  United  States  census  report,29 
our  only  source  of  information,  that  there  were  but  69,  with  an 
enrollment  of  only  4,746  of  the  18,097  white  children  between 
the  ages  of  four  and  twenty  years.  Even  four  years  later,  or,  one 
year  after  the  enactment  of  the  second  state  school  law,  there  were, 
as  State  Superintendent  David  S.  Walker  tells  us  in  his  report,30 
still  but  few  counties  in  which  the  school  system  had  been  put 
into  practical  operation.  "  With  the  exception  of  the  counties 
of  Monroe  and  Franklin,"  he  says,  "  I  have  heard  of  none  that 
have  contributed  anything  from  the  county  treasury  for  the  aug- 
mentation of  the  school  money  received  from  the  State."  His 
report  of  1858, 31  however,  shows  that  several  of  the  counties 
were  establishing  and  maintaining  public  schools.  In  closing  his 
report,  he  says:  "From  the  promise  n.'.v  afforded  us  by  the 
awakening  interest  of  our  people  in  our  common  schools  and 
the  two  state  seminaries,  it  seems  that  the  time  has  almost  ar- 
rived when  all  the  children  of  Florida  may  and  will  be  educated 
in  her  own  institutions  .  .  . ."  Two  years  afterward  other  coun- 
ties were  trying  the  experiment.  But  just  how  many  public 
schools  were  in  operation  in  the  State  we  do  not  know,  because 
only  seven  of  the  thirty-six  county  superintendents  made  any  re- 
port on  the  subject  of  schools  in  their  respective  counties.  The 
United  States  census  report  of  that  year32  gives  97,  with  an 
enrollment  of  8,494  of  the  30,461  white  children  between  four 
and  twenty  years  of  age.33  There  were  probably  more  than  that, 
for  in  just  the  seven  counties  from  which  reports  were  received 
there  were  38  schools  maintained.34  However,  accepting  the 
figures  of  the  United  States  census  reports  for  1850  and  1860  in 

29  See  pp.  396,  404,  and  405. 

30  For  this  report  see  House  Journal,  1854-55,  appendix,  pp.  6-&;  also 
Senate  Journal,  appendix,  pp.  14-18. 

31  See  H.  J.,  i8s&-59,  app.,  14-18.  also  S.  J.,  app.,  14-18. 

32  See  volume  on  "  Mortality  and  Miscellaneous  Statistics,"  pp.  506-07  J 
also  volume  on  "  Population,"  p.  50. 

33  Superintendent  Walker,  in  his  report  of  1860   (for  this  report  see 
S.  J.,  1860-61,  app.,  9-12),  gives  21,178  as  the  number  of  white  children 
of  school  age,  that  is,  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen  years. 

34  Escambia,  i;  Duval,  2;  Jackson,  16;  Marion,  14;  Monroe,  I    (with 
two  teachers)  ;  Washington,  4.     The  superintendent  of  Wakulla  County 


24  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

regard  to  the  public  schools  of  Florida,  we  find  that  during  the 
decade  immediately  following  the  enactment  of  the  first  state 
school  law  the  number  of  schools  increased  from  69  to  97  and 
the  school  enrollment  from  4,746  to  8,494,35  whereas  the  total 
white  population  increased  from  47,2O336  to  77,74737  and  the  school 
population  from  about  18,000  to  about  30,000.  In  other  words, 
while  the  total  population  and  school  population  increased  about 
65  per  cent,  the  number  of  schools  and  school  enrollment  in- 
creased 41  and  80  per  cent,  respectively.  Thus  we  see  that 
between  1849  and  1861  some  progress  was  made  in  establishing 
public  schools  and  in  getting  the  children  to  attend  them. 

Administrative  Organisation  and  Financial  Support. — Other 
public-school  gains  were  increased  efficiency  in  the  administration 
and  an  increase  in  the  means  of  support.  As  mentioned  in  the 
paragraph  just  above,  very  little  was  done  at  first  in  the  way 
of  establishing  schools.  This  was  due,  not  so  much  to  lack  of 
funds,  as  to  lack  of  interest,  on  the  part  of  the  administrative 
officers.  As  we  have  seen,  abundant  legal  provisions  were  made 
for  securing  ample  revenue.  In  the  first  place,  for  example,  a 
state  school-fund  consisting  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  all 
lands  granted  to  the  State  for  the  support  of  public  schools  was 
established  in  1848;  secondly,  the  school  law  of  1849  directed 
that  this  fund  be  augmented  by  money  received  from  certain 
other  sources,  and  that  the  interest  thereon  be  distributed  amongst 
the  different  counties  on  the  basis  of  school  population.  And 
yet  the  income  from  the  school-fund  in  1850  amounted  to  only 
$250,  out  of  a  total  annual  income  of  $22,386.38  But  as  the 
state  superintendent  of  schools  became  more  concerned  about 
the  educational  welfare  of  the  children  there  was  an  improve- 
ment in  this  respect,  the  income  being  $5,031.07  in  i853~54,39 

reported  that  the  county  commissioners  had  laid  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent 
upon  the  state  tax  for  common-school  purposes,  but  that  no  children 
attended  school  that  year  (see  the  report  of  the  state  superintendent,  in 
S.  J.,  1860-61,  app.,  0^-12). 

35  During  this  same  time  the  number  of  academies  and  other  schools 
increased  from  34  to  138,  and  their  enrollment  from  1,251  to  4,486. 

36  See  Seventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  1850,  p.  402. 

37  See  Eighth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1860,  volume  on  "  Popu- 
lation," p.   53. 

38  See  Seventh  Census  of  the  United  States,  1850,  p.  404. 

39  See  H.  J.,  1854-55,  app.,  6-8;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  6-8. 


RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA  25 

$6,059.80  in  I855-56,40  $6,542.60  in  1857-58,"  $8,630.10  in 
I858-59,42  and  $9,530.10  in  i859~6o.42  At  no  time,  however,  was 
the  apportionment  to  any  county  sufficient  to  run  its  schools. 
Seeing  that  the  income  from  the  state  school-fund  was  so  small, 
the  legislature,  in  1851,  authorized  the  counties  to  raise  by  tax- 
ation any  sum  not  exceeding  four  dollars  for  each  child  between 
five  and  eighteen  years  of  age.43  But  only  two  counties  —  Frank- 
lin and  Monroe  —  having  availed  themselves  of  this  law,  the 
legislature,  in  1853,  again  attempted  to  increase  the  school  receipts 
by  authorizing  the  county  commissioners  of  the  several  counties 
"  to  add  to  the  sum  apportioned  to  the  county  by  the  State  any 
sum  which  they  may  deem  proper  to  be  paid  out  of  the  county 
treasury."  No  limit  was  put  upon  their  discretion.  They  could 
make  the  county  school-fund  as  large  as  they  chose  to  make  it.44 
Thus  it  is  plain  that  the  fault  was  not  with  the  law  if  any  child 
of  the  State  were  deprived  of  the  opportunity  to  attend  a  good 
common  school,  but  almost  entirely  with  the  school  officers,  es- 
pecially the  probate  judges  and  county  commissioners,  on  whom 
the  welfare  of  the  public-school  system  primarily  depended.  In 
this  connection,  Hon.  David  S.  Walker,  the  first  aggressive  state 
superintendent  of  schools,  in  his  report  for  i853~54,45  says: 
"  Hitherto,  the  judges  of  probate  and  county  commissioners  have 
not,  I  fear,  given  to  this  subject  the  consideration  it  deserves.  .  .  ." 
Prior  to  this  report  by  Superintendent  Walker,  it  seems  that  no 
county,  except  Franklin  and  Monroe,  had  levied  a  school  tax  or 
contributed  anything  from  its  treasury  to  augment  the  sum  re- 
ceived from  the  State.  In  fact,  it  seems  that  during  the  early 
fifties  the  money  received  from  public  funds  was  used  in  many 
of  the  counties  to  subsidize  favorite  private  schools.  Later, 
however,  as  the  county  school  officers  became  more  interested 
in  the  work  of  the  public  schools  there  was  an  improvement  in 
this  respect,  too.  A  few  more  of  the  counties  levied  a  school 
tax,  and  several  of  them  contributed  something  from  the  county 

40  See  H.  J.,  1856-57,  app.,  12-13;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  12-13. 

41  See  H.  J.,  1858-59,  app.,  14-18;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  14-18. 

42  See  S.  J.,  1860-61,  app.,  9-12. 

43  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  Chap.  343. 

44  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1852-53,  Chap.  510,  Sec.  4. 
«See  H.  J.,  1854-55,  app.,  6-8;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  6-8. 


26  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

treasury.  Thus  through  the  influence  of  the  school  officers, 
both  state  and  local,  Florida  was  placed  on  the  roll  of  Southern 
states  that  had,  by  1860,  entered  on  the  noble  work  of  public 
education. 

Popular  Interest  in  Education. — Still  another  public-school 
gain  was  a  growth  of  popular  interest  in  education.  At  first 
there  were  many  patrons  who  had  very  little  or  no  interest  in 
the  work  of  the  schools.  Unfortunately,  in  many  instances,  they 
outnumbered  those  who  were  interested.  That  there  was  this 
widespread  indifference  is  evidenced  by  the  fact,  first,  that  the 
people  were  unwilling  to  provide  funds  necessary  for  the  proper 
support  of  the  schools,  and,  second,  that  they  also  failed  to  see 
that  their  children  attended.  We  learn  from  the  United  States 
census  report  of  i85o46  that  there  were  but  118  schools  in  op- 
eration during  the  scholastic  year  1849-50  —  49  private  and  69 
public ;  that  there  were  only  about  35  per  cent  of  the  white  school 
population  enrolled  in  all  the  schools  —  about  7  per  cent  in  the 
former  and  28  per  cent  in  the  latter;  and  that  there  were  no 
counties  in  which  a  school  tax  was  levied.  Furthermore,  we 
find  this  statement  in  State  Superintendent  Walker's  report  for 
1853-54:  4T  "  I  very  much  regret  the  apathy  which  has  prevailed 
in  the  public  mind  on  this  all  important  subject  ....  Few 
persons  anywhere  seem  to  have  given  the  subject  much  atten- 
tion .  .  . ."  But  subsequently  there  was  a  change  in  the  attitude 
of  the  patrons  along  this  line.  Superintendent  Walker  states 
in  his  report  for  1857-58  that  there  was  an  "  awakening  interest  " 
in  the  common  schools.48  Moreover,  we  learn  from  the  United 
States  census  report  of  two  years  later49  that  both  the  number 
of  schools  and  the  school  enrollment  had  almost  doubled  since 
1850,  and  that  there  were  several  counties  which  were  either 
levying  a  tax  or  contributing  something  from  the  county  treasury, 
or  both,  for  the  support  of  the  school  work.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  just  prior  to  1860  a  public  sentiment  favorable  to 
education  was  rapidly  developing. 

The  educational  progress  for  the  period  beginning  with  1840 
and  ending  with  1860  is  partially  shown  by  the  following  table, 

46  See  pages  404-05  and  396-99- 

<7  See  H.  J.,  1854-55,  app.,  8;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  8. 

48  For  this  report  see  H.  J.,  1858-59,  app.,  14-18;  also  S.  J.,  app.,  14-18. 

^  See  volume  on  "  Mortality  and  Miscellaneous  Statistics,"  506-08. 


RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA 


27 


TABLE   I 
STATISTICS  OF  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA  FOR  1840,  1850  AND  1860° 


1840 

1850 

1860 

Academies  and  other  schools: 
Number  .  .               .    ...        

18 

34 

Teachers    

49 

185 

Pupils      

732 

1,251 

4,486 

Annual  income,  total    

$13,089 

$75,412 

From  endowment      

1,900 

2,045 

From  public  funds  

3,964 

From  other  sources  

11,189 

69,403 

Public  schools: 
Number  «.  

51 

69 

97 

Teachers 

71 

98 

School  population 

18,097° 

30,461  6 

Total  enrollment 

4,746 

8,494 

Average  attendance  

925 

1,878 

2,032 

Annual  income   total 

$22,386 

$27  ->89 

75 

From  taxation  

776 

From  public  funds  

20 

22,136 

16,908 

Illiterates  over  20    

3,859 

5,341 

Libraries  : 
Public 

I 

54 

Volumes 

l.OOO 

37.  12^ 

Sunday-school  and  church 

4 

4 

860 

4.250 

School        

2 

8 

800 

5,000 

Total  libraries    .    .                        

7 

66 

Total  volumes      ...                          

2,660 

46,375 

Newspapers  and  periodicals: 
Number                                   .        

10 

22 

Circulation                                           

5.750 

15,500 

Copies  printed  annually           

319,800 

I,08I,600 

0  The  figures  given  here  are  for  whites  only. 

6  The  number  of  inhabitants  between  4  and  20  years  of  age. 

c  Superintendent  Corley  gives  $9,530.10  as  the  amount  received  from  public 
funds,  while  the  United  States  census  report  gives  only  $2,340  as  the  amount 
received. 

which  has  been  prepared  from  figures  given  in  the  United  States 
census  reports  of  1840,  1850  and  1860,  and  in  State  Superin- 
tendent Hugh  A.  Corley's  report  for  i859~6o.50 

Educational  Accomplishment  from  1860  to  i86p. — Thus  we 
have  seen  that  by  1860  Florida  had  made  a  good  beginning  in 
the  direction  of  establishing  a  public-school  system.  She  had 

50  For  this  report  see  S.  J.,  1860-61,  app., 


28  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

laid  the  foundation,  and  had  commenced  to  build  thereon.  But 
with  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  that  which  she  had  so  well 
begun  had  to  be  discontinued  until  life  had  resumed  a  more 
normal  course.  The  schools  which  had  been  in  operation  were 
brought  to  an  end;  and  both  the  seminary  and  common-school 
funds  were  given  the  governor  to  be  used  in  helping  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  the  war.51  During  the  war  some  efforts  were 
made  to  establish  and  maintain  free  schools,  especially  for  the 
children  of  the  soldiers ; 52  but  very  little  was  accomplished,  as  the 
attention  of  the  people  was  absorbed  in  the  preservation  of  the 
state  and  home.  And  just  after  the  war  there  were  some  attempts 
at  public  education,  particularly  for  the  indigent  children ; 53  but 
again  little  could  be  done,  on  account  of  the  dreadful  conditions 
that  prevailed  over  the  State.  For  by  the  close  of  the  terrible 
conflict  the  educational  facilities  had,  for  the  most  part,  been 
completely  destroyed;  the  total  principal  of  the  common-school 
fund  had  been  spent  for  arms,  ammunition,  and  other  objects, 
and  the  only  really  productive  portion  remaining  was  about 
600,000  acres  of  unsold  land;  and,  worse  still,  the  property  of 
the  people  throughout  the  State  had  been  greatly  diminished  in 
value.  In  addition,  the  people  had  become  very  much  alarmed 
by  the  fear  that  coeducation  of  the  races  would  be  forced  upon 
them  by  a  reconstruction  legislature  or  a  Congress  possessed  with 
millennial  zeal  for  universal  brotherhood.  These  and  many  other 
hindrances  rendered  public  education  practically  impossible.  So 
unfavorable  were  the  conditions  that  almost  nothing  was  ac- 
complished until  the  establishment  of  the  present  public-school 
system  in  1869. 

C.  NEGRO  EDUCATION 

So  far,  in  our  treatment  of  the  rise  of  the  public  school  in 
Florida,  we  have  confined  our  attention  to  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  white  children  only.  But  our  study  would  be  incomplete 
without  specific  mention  of  the  efforts  to  educate  the  negroes. 
In  closing  this  chapter,  then,  let  us  direct  our  attention  to  what 
was  done  in  the  way  of  establishing  schools  for  negro  children. 

81  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1860-61,  p.  232. 

52  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1864,  pp.  19-20. 

53  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1866,  p.  50. 


RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA  29 

Negro  Education  Prior  to  1865. — Prior  to  1865  the  negroes 
received  no  education  in  terms  of  the  school.  In  fact,  laws  were 
passed  which  made  the  establishment  of  negro  schools  impossible. 
For  example,  in  1832,  while  Florida  was  still  a  territory,  a  law 
was  enacted  prohibiting  negroes  to  congregate  for  any  purpose  ex- 
cept for  work  or  to  attend  divine  worship  at  any  place  attended 
by  white  persons.54  Again  in  1846,  one  year  after  Florida  be- 
came a  state,  a  similar  but  more  stringent  law  was  passed.55 

Schools  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  Certain  Northern 
Benevolent  Associations. — But  in  1865,  shortly  after  the  close  of 
the  war,  certain  Northern  benevolent  associations,  particularly  the 
African  Civilization  Society,  the  Home  Missionary  Society  of  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  the  New  York  branch 
of  the  American  Freedmen's  Union  Commission,  began  to  estab- 
lish negro  schools  at  different  points  in  the  State.  Through  these 
agencies  thirty  schools  were  in  successful  operation  at  the  end  of 
the  year.56  In  regard  to  these  schools,  Hon.  C.  Thurston  Chase, 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  in  his  report  submitted 
to  Governor  Harrison  Reed  on  January  9,  i869,57  has  this  to  say: 

"Numbers  of  the  ladies  who  assumed  the  duties  of  teachers  were 
persons  of  wealth  and  high  social  position  at  home.  Coming  at  a  time 
when  the  freed  children  were  cast  suddenly  at  the  threshold  of  a  new 
life,  unused  to  the  responsibilities  and  ignorant  of  the  duties  thus  thrust 
upon  them,  they  were  welcomed  with  great  joy,  and  labored  with  sincere 
Christian  devotion,  amidst  hardships  and  privations.  The  teachers  have 
changed,  but  most  of  the  schools  are  still  maintained." 

Legal  Provision  for  Negro  Education. — Early  in  the  following 
year  —  January  16  —  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  the  creation 
of  a  public  system  of  education  for  the  children  of  the  f reedmen.58 
It  provided  for  the  appointment,  by  the  governor,  of  a  super- 
intendent, who  <was  directed  to  organize  colored  schools,  and  to 
employ  competent  teachers  for  them.  For  the  support  of  these 
schools  it  provided,  first,  for  a  tuition  fee  of  fifty  cents  per 

54  See  Acts   of  the  Legislative  Council  of  the  Territory  of  Florida. 
1832,  p.  145. 

55  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1846,  Chap.  87,  Sec.  p. 

56  See  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  XIX,  338. 

57  See  page  5. 

58  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1866,  pp.  37-39- 


30  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

month  to  be  collected  from  each  pupil,59  and  second,  for  a  tax 
of  one  dollar  each  upon  "  all  male  persons  of  color  between  the 
ages  of  21  and  45." 

Schools  Conducted  under  the  Auspices  of  the  State. — As  soon 
as  this  law  was  enacted,  efforts  were  made  to  put  it  into  oper- 
ation. The  Governor  immediately  appointed  a  superintendent, 
who  at  once  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office.  This  officer, 
as  he  himself  tells  us,60  "  met  everywhere  a  kind  reception  and 
hearty  response."  The  freedmen,  in  addition  to  contributing  to 
the  support  of  teachers,  in  several  instances  erected  school  build- 
ings at  their  own  expense.  And,  in  a  number  of  instances,  the 
landed  proprietors  of  the  State  greatly  aided  in  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  schools.60  Considerable  aid  and  encourage- 
ment were  received  from  certain  outside  sources,  too,  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  being  the  foremost.61  As  a  result,  by  the  close 
of  the  year  the  number  of  colored  schools  had  increased  from 
30  to  65 ;  the  number  of  teachers  employed,  from  19  to  45 ;  and 
the  school  enrollment,  from  1,900  to  2,726.  The  subjects  taught 
were  easy  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  simple  arithmetic.  As 
to  the  work  of  these  schools,  E.  B.  Duncan,  superintendent  of 
common  schools  for  freedmen,  says  in  his  report  for  1866 :62 

"  These  schools  have  been  marked  by  a  most  earnest  perseverance  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher's,  while  the  pupils  take  the  liveliest  interest,  and  num- 
bers who  have  gone  only  4  months  read  and  spell  readily,  and  .  .  .  show 
great  progress  in  figures.  .  .  ." 
In  another  place  he  says : 

"The  teachers  have  been  most  all  colored,  of  good  moral  character, 
delighting  in  their  work,  maintaining  good  discipline,  men  of  energy, 
and  many  well  qualified.  ...  I  have  never  heard  a  single  complaint 
against  them." 

For  the  most  part,  these  schools  were  continued  during  1867 
and  1868.  Others  were  also  established.  During  these  two 
years  there  were,  respectively,  71  and  54  schools  in  operation, 
with  an  average  enrollment  of  2,205.  The  subjects  taught  were 
still  very  rudimentary,  being  mostly  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 

69  This  was  later  changed  to  one  dollar. 

60  Reverend  E.  B.  Duncan,  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Common 
Schools  for  Freedman,  1866;  in  Senate  Journal,  State  of  Florida,  1865- 
66,  appendix. 

61  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  XIX,  337. 

62  See  Sen.  Jour.,  1865-66,  app. 


RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA 


31 


and  geography.  Some  higher  branches  were  taught,  but  these 
were  pursued  by  only  a  very  few  of  the  students.  As  to  the 
teachers,  nearly  half  of  them  were  white;  and,  as  Hon.  D.  S. 
Walker,  then  governor  of  Florida,  said,63  they  were  "  some  of 
our  most  respected  white  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the  State." 

TABLE  II 
STATISTICS  OF  NEGRO  EDUCATION  IN   FLORIDA,   i86s-i8686* 


1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

Number  of  schools,  total  
Day  *!  

30 

65 

-1C 

71 

42 

54 

Night  

•JQ 

2O 

Number  of  teachers,  total  

IO 

AC 

64 

61 

White  

•22 

Colored  

•22 

•17 

School  enrollment,  total  

I.OOO 

2,726 

2,228 

2  l82 

Male  

I  O^"? 

I  032 

Female  

i  I?*; 

I  I5O 

Average  attendance  

I  81^ 

i  610 

Per  cent  of  enrollment 

81 

74 

Enrollment,  by  subjects; 
In  the  alphabet.    .          .    . 

418 

212 

In  easy  reading 

I  O47 

I   163 

In  advanced  reading 

4-22 

683 

In  writing 

$62 

I  O4O 

In  EfeoKraphv 

2O8 

4g  r 

In  arithmetic 

48l 

898 

In  higher  branches 

10 

c;0 

Annual  income,  total 

$21  OOO 

$IQ  2OO 

From  freedmen 

608 

620 

From  others 

20,^02 

18  ^71 

Educational  Accomplishment. — From  what  has  been  said,  to- 
gether with  the  foregoing  table,  which  has  been  prepared  by  fig- 
ures taken  from  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education  and 
from  various  reports  of  the  superintendent  of  common  schools 
for  freedmen,  there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that  the  schools 
conducted  for  negroes  during  the  four  years  ending  with  1868 
were  of  much  value  in  laying  the  foundation  for  the  education 
of  the  colored  people  of  the  State. 

63  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1869.  p.  5. 

64  For  the  figures  given  here   see  the  various   reports   of  the  super- 
intendent of  common  schools  for  freedmen,  published  in  the  House  and 
Senate  Journals ;  also  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,  XIX,  338. 


32  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

SUMMARY 

During  the  period  beginning  with  1845  and  ending  with  1868, 
several  attempts  were  made  to  provide  a  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. In  the  first  place,  the  constitution  of  1845  directed  that 
the  lands  granted  by  Congress  for  the  benefit  of  common  schools 
and  institutions  of  learning  should  forever  be  devoted  to  that 
purpose  alone,  and  that  the  legislature  should  make  adequate 
provision  for  preserving  these  lands  from  waste  or  damage. 

By  legislative  act  of  1847,  tne  control  and  direction  of  the 
common-school  and  seminary  lands  was  given  almost  exclusively 
to  the  register  of  public  lands.  The  following  year  he  was  di- 
rected to  sell  the  common-school  lands,  and  to  pay  the  proceeds 
into  the  state  treasury  for  the  establishment  of  a  state  common- 
school  fund. 

In  1849  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  the  establishment  of 
common  schools  for  all  white  children  of  the  State  between  five 
and  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  administration  of  the  schools 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  register  of  public  lands,  who 
was  directed  to  officiate  as  state  superintendent  of  schools,  the 
judges  of  probate,  who  were  directed  to  serve  as  superintendents 
of  schools  for  their  respective  counties,  and  local  boards  of 
trustees,  who  were  to  be  elected  annually  by  the  taxpayers  of  the 
various  school  districts.  The  duties  of  these  officers  in  regard 
to  the  schools  were  also  set  forth. 

In  the  same  year  a  law  was  enacted  providing  that  the  com- 
mon-school fund  should  consist  of  (i)  the  proceeds  of  the  six- 
teenth-section lands,  (2)  "  five  per  cent  of  the  net  proceeds  of 
the  United  States  lands  within  the  State,"  (3)  the  proceeds  of 
all  escheated  estates,  (4)  the  net  proceeds  "  of  all  property  found 
on  the  coasts  or  shores  of  the  State,"  and  (5)  all  other  property 
thereafter  granted  for  the  benefit  of  common  schools;  that  the 
proceeds  of  this  fund  should  be  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the 
State ;  and  that  the  comptroller  should  invest  the  same  in  either 
Florida  or  United  States  stocks. 

The  following  year  (1850),  the  comptroller  was  authorized  to 
invest  the  school  fund  in  any  state  stocks,  or  to  loan  it  to  city 
or  county  authorities  within  the  State;  and  the  counties  were 
empowered  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  support  of  common  schools. 
The  next  year,  the  school  fund  was  enlarged  by  the  proceeds 


RISE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  IN  FLORIDA  33 

received  by  the  State  from  the  sale  of  slaves  under  the  act  of 
November  22,  1829;  and  provision  was  also  made  for  augmenting 
the  school  fund  from  the  state  treasury. 

In  1853  the  school  law  was  revised,  the  principal  change  being 
that  the  county  commissioners  were  made  ex  officio  a  county 
board  of  education,  and  were  authorized  to  supplement  the  sum 
received  from  the  State  by  any  sum  from  the  county  treasury 
which  they  thought  proper  for  the  support  of  common  schools. 
After  this  there  was  no  more  school  legislation  of  any  importance 
until  1869,  when  the  present  public-school  system  was  established. 

Just  what  results  were  actually  achieved  during  this  period, 
no  one  can  say,  on  account  of  the  meager  sources  of  information. 
From  the  data  that  are  available,  though,  it  is  quite  evident 
that  by  1860  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  the  way 
of  establishing  public  schools  for  the  white  children  of  the  State 
and  in  getting  the  children  to  attend  them,  the  school  officers 
had  become  more  efficient,  and  the  patrons  had  become  more 
interested  in  the  work  of  the  schools.  However,  after  1860 
practically  nothing  was  accomplished,  since  the  thoughts  and  en- 
ergies of  the  people  were  absorbed  in  the  preservation  of  state 
and  home. 

As  to  the  establishment  of  schools  for  the  negro  children, 
absolutely  nothing  was  done,  except  during  the  last  four  years 
of  the  period.  In  1865  certain  Northern  benevolent  associations 
began  the  good  work  of  establishing  negro  schools  at  different 
points  of  the  State.  Through  them  thirty  schools  were  in  suc- 
cessful operation  by  the  close  of  the  year.  The  next  year  a  law 
was  enacted  providing  common  schools  for  freedmen.  No  time 
was  lost  in  putting  it  into  operation.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the 
number  of  schools  had  increased  to  sixty-five.  For  the  most 
part,  these  were  continued  during  1867  and  1868.  The  schools 
conducted  for  the  negro  children  during  these  four  years  re- 
sulted in  the  improvement  of  the  pupils  both  in  knowledge  and 
in  the  general  conduct  of  life,  and  thereby  helped  to  pave  the 
way  for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  education  in  which  the 
negroes  are  admitted  to  school  privileges  on  equal  terms  with 
the  whites. 


CHAPTER  III 
ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

Having  surveyed  the  rise  of  the  public  school  in  Florida,  let 
us  now  notice  the  establishment  of  the  present  public-school 
system.  This  was  made  possible,  as  already  stated,  by  certain 
provisions  of  the  constitution  of  1868  and  the  school  law  of  the 
following  year.  First,  let  us  glance  at  the  constitutional  provisions 
concerning  public  education. 

I.  CONSTITUTION  OF  1868 

In  accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  passed  March  2,  1867, 
generally  known  as  "the  reconstruction  act,"  a  convention  met 
at  Tallahassee  from  January  20  to  February  25,  1868,  and,  ig- 
noring the  constitution  of  1865,  framed  another  constitution, 
which  was  submitted  to  the  people  in  May  of  that  year,  and 
ratified  by  14,520  votes  against  9,491  votes.1 

Article  on  Education. — This  constitution  contained  the  fol- 
lowing article  on  education : 2 

"  Section  i.  It  is  the  paramount  duty  of  the  State  to  make  ample 
provisions  for  the  education  of  all  the  children  residing  within  its 
borders,  without  distinction  or  preference. 

"  Section  2.  The  legislature  shall  provide  a  uniform  system  of  com- 
mon schools  and  a  university,  and  shall  provide  for  the  liberal  mainte- 
nance of  the  same.  Instruction  in  them  shall  be  free. 

"  Section  3.  There  shall  be  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
whose  term  of  office  shall  be  four  years,  and  until  the  appointment  and 
qualification  of  his  successor.  He  shall  have  general  supervision  of  the 
educational  interests  of  the  State.  His  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  law. 

"  Section  4.  The  common-school  fund,  the  interest  of  which  shall  be 
exclusively  applied  to  the  support  and  maintenance  of  common  schools 
and  purchase  of  suitable  libraries  and  apparatus  therefor,  shall  be  derived 
from  the  following  sources: 

"  The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be  granted 
to  the  State  by  the  United  States  for  educational  purposes ;  appropriations 

1  See  Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
the  State  of  Florida,  1868. 

2  Article  IX. 

34 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  35 

by  the  State;  the  proceeds  of  lands  or  other  property  which  may  accrue 
to  the  State  by  escheat  or  forfeiture;  the  proceeds  of  all  property 
granted  to  the  State  when  the  purpose  of  such  grant  shall  not  be 
specified;  all  moneys  which  may  be  paid  as  an  exemption  from  military 
duty;  all  fines  collected  under  the  penal  laws  of  this  State;  such  portion 
of  the  per  capita  tax  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  educational  pur- 
poses; twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  which  are  now 
or  hereafter  may  be  owned  by  the  State. 

"  Section  5.  A  special  tax  of  not  less  than  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of 
all  taxable  property  of  the  State,  in  addition  to  the  other  means  pro- 
vided, shall  be  levied  and  apportioned  annually  for  the  support  and 
maintenance  of  common  schools. 

"  Section  6.  The  principal  of  the  common-school  fund  shall  remain 
sacred  and  inviolate. 

"  Section  7.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  law  for  the  distribution  ol 
the  common-school  fund  among  the  several  counties  of  the  State  in. 
proportion  to  the  number  of  children  residing  therein  between  the  ages  of 
four  and  twenty-one  years. 

"  Section  8.  Each  county  shall  be  required  to  raise  annually  by  tax, 
for  the  support  of  common  schools  therein,  a  sum  not  less  than  one-half 
the  amount  apportioned  to  each  county  for  that  year  from  the  income  of 
the  common-school  fund.  Any  school  district  neglecting  to  establish  and 
maintain  for  at  least  three  months  in  each  year  such  school  or  schools 
as  may  be  provided  by  law  for  such  district  shall  forfeit  its  portion  of  the 
common-school  fund  during  such  neglect. 

"  Section  9.  The  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secretary  of 
state,  and  attorney  general  shall  constitute  a  body-corporate,  to  be 
known  as  the  board  of  education  of  Florida.  The  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  shall  be  president  thereof.  The  duties  of  the  board  of 
education  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  legislature." 

Provisions  for  School  Organisation. — As  will  be  readily  seen, 
the  constitution  of  Florida  for  1868,  like  many  of  the  consti- 
tutions of  the  Western  and  other  Southern  states  of  that  gen- 
eration, went  somewhat  into  detail  regarding  the  organization 
and  support  of  the  public  educational  system.  In  regard  to 
school  organization,  it  contained  three  provisions,  (i)  It  author- 
ized the  legislature  to  organize  a  system  of  schools  for  all  the 
children  of  the  State  —  for  the  black  as  well  as  for  the  white. 
Prior  to  this,  as  we  have  shown,  the  negroes  had  received  very 
little  education  in  terms  of  the  school;  but  from  now  on  they 
were  to  share  equally  with  the  whites.  (2)  It  provided  for  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  as  a  separate  state  officer. 
Since  1849,  as  was  pointed  out,  the  register  of  public  lands 


36  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

had  acted  as  state  superintendent.  (3)  It  provided  also  for  a 
state  board  of  education,  consisting  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  secretary  of  state,  and  attorney  general.  The 
duties  of  the  superintendent  and  the  board  of  education  were 
to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Provisions  for  School  Support. — In  regard  to  the  means  of 
support  for  the  public-school  system,  the  constitution  contained 
five  different  provisions,  (i)  It  provided  for  a  common-school 
fund  from  quite  a  number  of  sources.  As  we  have  seen,  there 
had  been  such  a  fund  in  one  form  or  another  since  December, 
1848.  (2)  The  principal  of  this  fund  was  to  be  kept  intact. 
Nothing  but  the  interest  thereon  could  be  spent.  (3)  This  was 
ordered  to  be  distributed  among  the  various  counties  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children  between  four  and  twenty-one 
residing  therein.  However,  any  county  neglecting  to  maintain 
a  school  or  schools  for  at  least  three  months  in  the  year 
was  to  forfeit  its  portion  of  the  income  from  the  common- 
school  fund  during  such  neglect.  (4)  A  state  tax  of  not  less 
than  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property  was  ordered 
to  be  levied  and  apportioned  annually.  This  feature  seems  to 
have  been  entirely  new  in  Florida.  (5)  And  finally,  the  coun- 
ties were  required  to  raise,  through  taxation,  a  sum  equal  to 
one-half  the  amount  received  from  the  income  of  the  common- 
school  fund. 

II.  SCHOOL  LAW  OF  1869 

Thus  we  have  seen  that  the  constitution  of  1868  contained 
several  progressive  features  respecting  public  education.  But 
it  required  legislation  to  make  them  operative.  Such  legisla- 
tion was  immediately  urged  by  Governor  Reed.  That  year,  in 
his  message  to  the  legislature,  he  said : 3  "  It  will  be  necessary 
that  a  well-prepared  plan  for  the  early  inauguration  of  the  sys- 
tem of  public  education  contemplated  in  the  constitution  be 
enacted  at  this  session."  In  accordance  with  this  recommen- 
dation of  the  Governor,  the  legislature,  in  January,  1869,  enacted 
a  law  providing  for  a  system  of  common  schools.4 

Its  Provisions. — This  law  is  especially  interesting,  as  it  was 
the  first  state-wide  effort  to  organize  the  educational  forces 

3  See  House  Journal,  1868-69,  p.  14. 
*  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1869,  Chap.  1686. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  37 

of  Florida.  Previous  to  this,  there  had  been  lack  of  organi- 
zation and  inadequate  facilities  —  some  form  of  school  operation, 
but  no  real  public-school  system.  This  being  the  first  common- 
school  law  which  succeeded  in  creating  a  real  system  of  public 
education,  and  being  also  the  true  foundation  of  subsequent 
legislation  and  the  system  now  in  force,  it  should  be  examined 
carefully.  As  we  shall  see,  it  contained  some  excellent  provisions 
relative  to  (i)  administrative  organization.  (2)  environment 
and  equipment  of  the  schools,  (3)  the  teaching  force,  (4)  the 
kinds  of  instruction  to  be  offered,  and  (5)  the  support  of  the 
school  system. 

Administrative  Organisation. — In  the  first  place,  the  law  pro- 
vided for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  general  and 
uniform  system  of  public  instruction  throughout  the  State, 
wherein  tuition  was  to  be  free  "  to  all  the  youth  residing  in  the 
State  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years."  Super- 
visory oversight  and  control  of  the  system  was  intrusted  to  a 
department  of  public  instruction,  consisting  of  a  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  and  a  state  board  of  education,  together 
with  a  board  of  public  instruction  and  a  superintendent  of 
schools  for  each  county,  and  local  school  trustees,  treasurers, 
and  agents. 

The  State  Board  of  Education. — At  the  head  of  the  department 
of  public  instruction  stood  a  state  board  of  education,  consist- 
ing of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secretary  of 
state,  and  attorney  general,  all  of  whom,  as  you  notice,  were 
ex  orncio  members  —  men  with  a  great  many  other  public  and 
private  duties  to  perform.  The  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion acted  as  president,  and  the  state  treasurer  as  treasurer  of 
the  board.  This  board  was  constituted  a  corporate  body  for 
educational  purposes.  In  that  capacity  it  was  directed  and  em- 
powered as  follows: 

"  ist.  To  obtain  possession  of  and  take  the  charge,  oversight,  and 
management  of  all  the  lands  granted  to,  or  held  by  the  State  for  educa- 
tional purposes,  and  to  fix  the  terms  of  sale,  rental  or  use  of  such  lands, 
and  to  do  whatever  may  be  necessary  to  preserve  them  from  trespass  or 
injury,  and  for  their  improvement. 

"2d.  To  have  the  direction  and  management,  and  to  provide  for  the 
safe-keeping  and  expenditure  of  all  the  educational  funds  of  the  State, 
with  due  regard  to  the  highest  interests  of  education. 


38  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

"  3d.  To  audit  the  accounts  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, allowing  actual  necessary  expenses. 

"4th.  To  entertain  and  decide  upon  questions  and  appeals  referred 
to  them  by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  or  any  matters  of 
difference  or  dispute  arising  under  the  operation  of  this  act,  and  to 
prescribe  the  manner  of  making  appeals  and  conducting  arbitrations. 

"5th.  To  remove  any  subordinate  officer  in  the  department  for  in- 
competency,  neglect  of  duty,  or  other  causes  which  would  disqualify  a 
person  for  the  appointment. 

"6th.  To  use  the  available  income  and  appropriations  to  the  uni- 
versity or  seminary  fund  in  establishing  one  or  more  departments  of  the 
university  at  such  place  or  places  as  may  offer  the  best  inducements. 

"7th.  To  keep  in  vi'ew  the  establishment  of  a  university  on  a  broad 
and  liberal  basis.  .  .  . 

"8th.  To  co-operate  with  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in 
the  organization  of  the  department,  and  for  the  general  diffusion  of 
knowledge  in  the  State." 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. — As  we  have  already 
seen,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  the  principal 
educational  officer  for  the  State.  As  provided  for  by  the  state 
constitution,5  he  was  appointed  by  the  governor,  the  senate  con- 
firming the  appointment,  and  held  office  four  years,  or  until 
the  appointment  and  qualification  of  his  successor.  He  had 
general  supervision  of  all  the  educational  interests  of  the  State. 
His  chief  powers  and  duties  were:  (i)  to  be  a  member  and 
president  of  the  state  board  of  education;  (2)  to  have  oversight 
of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  public  schools,  school  buildings, 
grounds,  equipment,  and  supplies;  (3)  to  have  printed  and  dis- 
tributed, free  of  charge,  to  all  officers  and  teachers,  the  school 
laws  and  such  other  forms  of  printed  matter  as  he  deemed 
necessary  for  their  use;  (4)  to  hold  meetings  of  county  super- 
intendents of  schools  and  other  school  officers;  (5)  to  hold 
teachers'  institutes  and  employ  competent  instructors  for  them; 
(6)  to  certificate  graduates  of  the  department  of  teaching  at 
the  state  university,  and  those  who  had  been  eminently  success- 
ful as  teachers;  (7)  to  fix  the  standard  of  qualification  for 
teachers  generally;  (8)  to  provide  plans  and  specifications  for 
the  construction  of  school  buildings,  and  give  directions  in  re- 
gard to  equipment  and  supplies,  and  other  relevant  matters; 
(9)  to  distribute  the  state  school-funds  to  their  separate  uses; 

5  Constitution  of  1868,  Art.  V,  Sec.  17. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  39 

4 

(10)  to  decide  appeals  and  controversies  arising  under  the  op- 
eration of  the  act,  or  refer  the  cases  to  the  state  board  of 
education  for  decision;  (n)  to  adopt  a  seal  for  his  own  official 
use;  (12)  to  gather  and  preserve  such  educational  and  historical 
matter,  specimens  of  natural  history,  and  samples  of  school  books 
and  appliances  as  he  thought  useful  for  the  information  of  the 
school  officers  and  teachers;  and  (13)  to  provide  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  the  management  of  the  department  of  public  in- 
struction. 

County  Boards  of  Public  Instruction. — But  in  addition  to  the 
educational  organization  for  the  State  as  a  whole,  there  were 
also  county  educational  "organizations  for  the  administration  of 
schools.  Each  county  was  regarded  as  a  school  district,  and  its 
educational  interests  were  committed  to  a  board  of  public  in- 
struction. This  body  was  composed  of  not  more  than  five  mem- 
bers, all  of  whom  were  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education, 
after  being  nominated  by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  recommended  by  the  representatives  of  the  county.  The 
county  superintendent  of  schools  was,  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
its  secretary  and  agent.  The  chairman  and  other  officers  were 
chosen  by  the  board  itself. 

This  board  was  constituted  a  corporate  body  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  educational  affairs  of  the  county.  Its  principal  pow- 
ers and  duties  were  as  follows :  ( I )  to  assume  and  hold  title  to  all 
property  of  the  county,  and  to  have  the  oversight,  management, 
and  disposition  of  the  same,  keeping  in  mind  the  best  educational 
interests;  (2)  to  receive,  hold,  and  manage  the  common-school 
funds  of  the  county,  with  due  regard  to  their  just  distribution 
and  use;  (3)  to  locate  and  maintain  schools,  as  needed  within 
the  county,  for  not  less  than  three  months  in  each  year;  (4)  to 
have  oversight  of  the  construction,  rental,  repair,  and  improve- 
ment of  the  schoolhouses,  fences,  grounds,  and  equipment;  (5) 
to  procure  the  textbooks  and  proper  apparatus  for  the  schools, 
and  the  books  and  stationery  needed  by  the  teachers;  (6)  to 
grade  and  classify  the  pupils;  (7)  to  examine,  certificate,  em- 
ploy, and  pay  the  teachers;  (8)  to  fix  the  compensation  and 
expenses  of  the  county  superintendent  of  schools ;  (9)  to  choose 
candidates  for  admission  to  the  state  university  or  seminaries; 
(10)  to  determine  the  amount  of  money  to  be  raised  by  taxation 


40  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

for  educational  purposes  within  the  county;  (n)  to  keep  an 
accurate  record  of  all  their  official  acts,  proceedings,  and  decisions, 
of  all  financial  matters  relating  to  the  schools  of  the  county,  of 
the  state  and  condition  of  each  school,  and  to  report  to  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  when  so  required;  (12)  and, 
in  general,  to  do  whatever  was  reasonable  and  necessary  for 
the  educational  welfare  of  the  county. 

County  Superintendents  of  Schools. — The  chief  educational 
officer  in  each  county  of  the  State  was  the  county  superintendent 
of  schools.  Like  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  he 
was  appointed  by  the  governor.6  His  term  of  office  was  two 
years,  and  his  principal  functions  were:  (i)  to  act  as  secretary 
and  agent  of  the  county  board  of  education;  (2)  to  ascertain 
the  places  where  schools  were  needed;  (3)  to  present  plans  and 
estimates  for  the  construction  and  improvement  of  school  build- 
ings; (4)  to  visit  the  schools  of  the  county,  carefully  observe 
the  condition  of  the  same,  and  give  such  helpful  suggestions 
as  he  deemed  proper;  (5)  to  arouse  a  greater  interest  in  educa- 
tion throughout  the  county;  (6)  to  select,  for  appointment  by 
the  county  board  of  education,  the  local  school  trustees,  and, 
when  elected,  to  see  that  they  attended  to  their  duties,  and  were 
kept  supplied  with  copies  of  the  laws,  decisions,  blanks,  and 
regulations  of  the  state  department  of  education;  (7)  to  decide, 
on  appeal  to  him,  all  disputes  and  controversies  arising  within 
the  county,  or  refer  them  to  the  county  board  for  decision;  (8) 
to  see  that  the  educational  affairs  of  the  county  were  properly 
guarded,  and  that  its  rights  in  relation  to  education  were  se- 
cured; (9)  to  establish  and  maintain  schools  within  the  county, 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
before  the  organization  of  the  county  board  of  education,  or 
in  case  that  it  failed  to  do  so;  (10)  to  examine  and  certificate 
teachers  when  empowered  to  do  so  by  the  county  board,  and  to 
revoke  or  suspend  the  same  when  sufficient  cause  was  given ; 
(u)  to  perform  all  the  acts  of  the  county  board  of  education 
when  that  body  failed  or  neglected  to  attend  to  its  duties;  (12) 
to  suspend  any  certificate  when  there  was  a  good  reason  for 
doing  so;  and  (13)  to  keep  a  record  of  each  school  in  the  county, 
and  of  the  expenditure  therefor. 
•  Constitution  of  1868,  Art.  V,  Sec.  19. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  41 

Local  School  Trustees. — In  addition  to  the  state  and  county 
educational  organizations  for  administrative  purposes,  there  were 
also  district,  or  rather  subdistrict,  organizations  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  schools.  A  subdistrict  consisted  of  one  or  more  schools, 
and  the  control  and  management  of  its  educational  affairs  were 
given  by  the  county  board  of  education  to  a  local  board  of 
trustees.  This  local  body  was  composed  of  not  more  than  five 
members.  They  were  nominated  by  the  county  superintendent 
of  schools,  recommended  by  the  patrons  of  the  subdistrict,  and 
appointed  by  the  county  board  of  education.  Each  local  school- 
board  was  charged  with  the  following  powers  and  duties :  ( I )  to 
attend  to  the  construction  and  rental  of  school  buildings;  (2)  to 
look  after  the  school  property,  and  make  or  oversee  the  making 
of  repairs  and  improvements;  (3)  to  see  that  the  schools  were 
properly  supplied  with  suitable  textbooks  and  teaching  supplies; 
(4)  to  examine  each  school  once  a  month,  and  see  that  it  was 
conducted  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
state  department  of  public  instruction;  (5)  to  assist  the  teachers, 
when  necessary,  in  matters  of  attendance  and  discipline;  (6)  to 
try  to  awaken  among  the  people  an  increased  interest  in  educa- 
tion; (7)  to  suggest  changes  and  improvements  to  the  county 
superintendent  of  schools;  (8)  to  keep  a  complete  and  reliable 
record  of  all  their  official  acts  and  proceedings  and  the  length 
of  time  actually  taught  by  each  teacher;  (9)  to  certify  the 
accounts  of  teachers  and  other  persons  to  the  county  board  of 
education ;  and  (10)  to  make  a  report  tothe  county  superintendent 
of  schools  every  three  months,  or  oftener  when  required,  on 
all  matters  committed  to  their  charge. 

So  much  for  the  administrative  organization  provided  for. 
Let  us  now  notice  some  of  the  provisions  of  the  law  relative 
to  the  environment  and  equipment  of  the  schools,  the  teaching 
force,  the  system  of  public  instruction,  and  the  support  of  the 
schools. 

Environment  and  Equipment  of  the  Schools. — When  a  school 
was  to  be  organized,  the  site  was  determined  by  the  county 
board  of  education.  To  be  sure,  the  patrons  were  usually  con- 
sulted. It  was  to  be  centrally  located;  accessible  to  all  who 
should  attend ;  dry,  airy,  healthful,  and  pleasant ;  and  to  contain 
not  less  than  one  acre  in  the  country7  districts,  and  as  nearly 


42  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

that  as  practicable  in  the  villages  and  cities.  The  construction, 
repair,  and  improvement  of  the  school  buildings  were  to  be  at- 
tended to  by  the  local  trustees,  the  county  board  of  education 
having  the  oversight  and  management  of  the  same.  Suitable 
textbooks,  proper  apparatus,  and  teaching  supplies  for  the  school 
were  to  be  provided  by  the  county  board  at  the  public  expense, 
it  being  left  to  the  local  trustees  to  see  that  the  school  was  supplied. 

The  Teaching  Force. — The  teachers  of  the  common  schools 
in  any  county  were  appointed  by  the  board  of  public  instruction 
for  that  county,  and  approved  by  the  trustees  of  the  various 
subdistricts.  However,  in  this  connection,  as  in  the  location 
of  a  school  site  and  in  all  matters  of  vital  interest  to  the  parents 
and  children,  the  patrons  were  usually  consulted. 

That  some  importance  was  attached  to  the  preparation  of 
those  who  were  to  be  entrusted  with  teaching  positions  was 
shown  in  three  different  ways.  In  the  first  place,  the  state 
board  of  education  was  authorized  and  directed  to  establish  a 
department  of  teaching  at  such  place  or  places  as  would  offer 
the  best  inducements.  It  was  also  to  keep  in  view  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  state  university,  one  object  of  which  was  to  train 
youth  for  the  teaching  profession.  Secondly,  only  those  were 
appointed  to  teaching  positions  who  had  already  been  duly  ex- 
amined and  certificated.  The  examination  of  candidates  for 
teaching  was  one  of  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  county  board 
of  education,  and  of  the  county  superintendent  when  so  author- 
ized by  the  county  board*.  But  the  licensing  of  these  candidates 
was  left  to  the  county  board  and  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  education.  Certificates  granted  by  the  former  were  good 
only  in  the  county  in  which  they  were  granted,  and  for  only 
one  year.  Those  granted  by  the  latter  were  good  in  any  part 
of  the  State,  and  for  the  time  specified.  In  both  cases  the 
standard  of  qualification  was  fixed  by  the  state  superintendent.7 
And,  in  the  third  place,  the  importance  of  the  training  of  teach- 
ers was  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  law  made  it  the  duty  of 

7  Three  grades  of  certificates  were  granted,  but  there  is  no  record 
as  to  the  exact  standards  that  were  required.  We  do  know,  however, 
that  the  candidates  for  certificates  were  given  a  brief  examination  in  the 
following  common-school  subjects:  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling, 
geography,  and  English  grammar  (see  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1873, 
pp.  57-60  and  116;  also  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  23). 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  43 

the  state  superintendent  to  arrange  for  the  holding  of  teachers' 
institutes,  and  to  secure  instructors  for  those  who  were  com- 
petent to  impart  information  on  the  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  the  teachers,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  state  board  of  education, 
the  county  boards  of  public  instruction,  and  the  county  superin- 
tendents of  schools,  were  clearly  defined  by  the  law.  Every  teacher 
was  authorized  and  directed:  (i)  to  work  faithfully  and  indus- 
triously for  the  growth  of  the  pupils  in  subject-matter;  (2)  to 
labor  earnestly  to  raise  the  moral  tone  of  the  pupils;  (3)  to 
lead  the  pupils,  both  by  precept  and  by  example,  to  an  acquaint- 
ance with,  and  the  practice  of,  the  different  virtues;  (4)  to 
require  them  to  observe  such  virtues  as  personal  cleanliness, 
neatness,  orderliness,  promptness,  and  courtesy,  and  to  avoid 
such  vices  as  vulgarity  and  profanity;  (5)  to  cultivate  in  them 
a  consideration  for  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others,  and  the 
realization  of  their  own  duties  and  responsibilities  as  citizens; 
(6)  to  see  that  the  property  of  the  school  was  not  injured 
in  any  way;  (7)  to  enforce  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
school  in  regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  pupils;  (8)  to  suspend 
those  who  persistently  violated  the  rules  and  regulations ;  (9)  to 
hold  a  public  examination  once  each  term,  that  is,  once  a  month  ; 
(10)  and,  on  closing  or  suspending  the  school,  to  turn  over  to 
the  trustees  of  the  school  the  keys  and  all  the  property,  and  at  all 
times  to  conform  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  department 
of  public  instruction. 

The  System  of  Public  Instruction. — The  type  of  public  instruc- 
tion provided  by  the  State  was  primarily  that  of  the  elementary 
school.  Such  instruction  was  offered  to  all  the  children  residing  in 
the  State  between  six  and  twenty-one  years  of  age,  the  number  be- 
tween these  ages  being  determined  by  the  tax  assessors  or,  in 
case  of  their  neglect,  by  the  superintendents  of  schools  for  the 
several  counties.  No  child  could  be  denied  this  privilege  except 
for  gross  misconduct,  immorality,  a  disregard  of,  or  a  persis- 
tent opposition  to,  the  regulations  of  the  school.  The  schools 
were  open  for  the  instruction  of  the  youth  not  less  three  months 
out  of  the  year,  a  school  month  being  twenty-two  days  of  six 
hours  each.  No  mention  was  made  of  time  allotments  or  of 


44  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

the  course  or  courses  of  study  to  be  offered  except  that  one  half 
day  in  each  week  was  to  be  given  to  some  phase  of  needle 
work  or  manual  labor. 

But  provision  was  made  not  only  for  elementary,  but  for 
secondary  and  higher  education  also.  The  county  boards  of 
public  instruction  were  authorized  and  directed  to  establish  and 
maintain  schools  with  a  higher  grade  of  instruction  than  that 
offered  in  the  elementary  schools  in  all  localities  of  their  respec- 
tive counties  where  the  advancement  and  number  of  the  pupils 
demanded  it.  As  in  the  elementary  schools,  tuition  here  was 
to  be  free  to  all  the  youth  of  the  State  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  twenty-one.  Higher  education  was  to  be  provided  by  the 
state  board  of  education.  This  board  was  directed  and  em- 
powered to  use  the  income  from  and  the  appropriations  to  the 
university  or  seminary  fund  in  establishing  and  maintaining  one 
or  more  departments  of  a  state  university,  commencing  with 
a  department  of  teaching  and  a  preparatory  department.  It  was 
also  to  keep  in  view  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  an 
institution  for  imparting  instruction  in  the  professions  of  teach- 
ing, medicine,  and  law ;  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  agriculture, 
horticulture,  mining,  engineering,  and  the  mechanic  arts;  in  the 
natural  sciences,  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  and  the 
higher  range  of  mathematics;  in  literature,  and  in  the  useful 
and  ornamental  branches  not  taught  in  the  common  schools.  The 
number  of  pupils  to  be  admitted  to  the  university,  or  any  of  its 
departments,  was  determined  by  the  state  board  of  education. 
Admission  was  secured  by  appointment  from  the  various  county 
boards  of  public  instruction,  each  county  being  entitled  to  send 
pupils  in  the  ratio  that  it  sent  representatives  to  the  legislature. 
Those  not  receiving  an  appointment  were  charged  a  tuition  fee. 

Support  of  the  School  System. — As  we  have  already  seen, 
the  constitution  of  1868  provided  quite  liberally  for  the  support 
of  the  public-school  system.8  It  provided  for  the  establishment 
of  a  state  school-fund  from  a  variety  of  sources,9  made  pro- 
vision for  an  annual  state  tax  of  at  least  one  mill  on  the  dollar 
of  all  taxable  property  in  the  State,10  and  provided  also  that 

'Article  IX,  sections  4-8. 

9  Article  IX,  section  4. 

10  Article  IX,  section  5. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  45 

each  county  should  be  required  to  raise  annually,  by  taxation, 
a  sum  equal  to  one-half  the  amount  apportioned  to  it  for  that 
year  from  the  income  of  the  school  fund.11  All  school  moneys 
received  from  state  sources  were  to  be  distributed  to  the  different 
counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  between  the 
ages  of  four  and  twenty-one  years  residing  therein ; 12  but  if 
any  county  failed  to  maintain  a  school  or  schools  for  at  least 
three  months  in  the  year,  it  forfeited  its  portion  of  the  educa- 
tional funds  of  the  State  during  such  failure.13  However,  a 
legislative  enactment  was  necessary  in  order  to  make  these  pro- 
visions operative.  The  school  law  of  1869  was  a  step  in  this 
direction.  It  demanded  that  the  county  commissioners  of  each 
county  should  levy  and  collect,  for  the  support  of  common 
schools  therein,  a  sum  not  to  exceed  one  per  cent  of  the  assessed 
value  of  its  taxable  property.  It  provided  that  the  money  re- 
ceived from  county  taxation,  as  well  as  that  received  from  the 
common-school  fund,  should  be  disbursed  by  the  county  boards 
of  public  instruction  to  the  various  schools  of  their  respective 
counties  on  the  basis  of  the  average  daily  attendance  of  the 
pupils,  some  discretionary  power  being  permitted  in  favor  of 
small  schools  with  a  high  average  attendance.  It  fixed  the  min- 
imum and  maximum  school  ages  at  six  and  twenty-one  years, 
respectively,  instead  of  four  and  twenty-one,  as  provided  by  the 
constitution.  It  made  provision  also  for  the  safe-keeping  and 
careful  oversight  of  all  the  school  funds.  The  state  board  of 
education  was  directed  and  empowered  to  have  the  supervision 
and  control  of  all  the  educational  funds  of  the  State;  the  county 
boards  of  education  were  given  the  direction  and  management 
of  the  common-school  funds  of  the  several  counties;  and  the 
boards  of  trustees  were  intrusted  with  the  school  moneys  to  be 
used  in  the  different  subdistricts.  In  no  case,  however,  was  any 
person  allowed  to  receive  any  school  money  until  he  had  given 
bond  with  two  good  securities  for  twice  the  sum  that  he  was  liable 
to  have  in  his  possession  at  any  one  time ;  and  the  county  super- 
intendents of  schools  were  directed  to  see  that  all  school  moneys 
received  by  their  respective  counties  from  state  resources,  as 

11  Article  IX,  section  8,  sentence  i. 

12  Article  IX,  section  7. 

18  Article  IX,  section  8,  sentence  2. 


46  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION    IN   FLORIDA 

well  as  all  moneys  raised  by  their  respective  counties  for  school 
purposes,  were  applied  to  the  objects  for  which  they  were  intended. 

Some  Weaknesses  in  the  Law. — Such  was  the  act  which 
provided  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  the  present 
public-school  system  of  Florida.  This  school  law,  the  product 
of  the  brain  of  Hon.  C.  Thurston  Chase,  first  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  was  indeed  a  remarkable  one  for  the  time 
and  the  State  for  which  it  was  designed.  Dr.  John  Eaton, 
United  States  commissioner  of  education,  in  his  report  for  the 
year  i876,14  said  that  it  "  embodied  the  best  features  of  the  older 
laws  with  happy  adaptations  of  improvements  which  experience 
had  shown  to  be  desirable."  Our  analysis  shows  that  it  was 
not  very  far  from  the  modern  idea.  However,  it  had  weak- 
nesses. The  principal  ones  were  as  follows:  (i)  It  provided 
that  the  state  and  county  superintendents  of  schools  should 
be  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  State.  (2)  It  did  not  give 
the  state  superintendent  sufficient  power  to  compel  reports  from 
subordinate  officers.  (3)  The  unit  of  organization  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  schools  was  the  district.  (4)  It  made  provision 
for  an  annual  census  of  the  youth  by  the  county  tax  assessors. 
(5)  It  failed  to  specify  a  course  or  courses  of  study.  (6)  There 
was  no  definite  standard  of  qualification  for  the  teachers  and 
school  officers.  (7)  Inadequate  facilities  were  provided  for  the 
preparation  and  training  of  teachers.  (8)  It  did  not  provide  for 
efficient  supervision.  (9)  It  failed  to  provide  for  a  tax  sufficient 
to  establish  and  maintain  the  schools.  But,  for  the  most  part, 
these  weaknesses  have  been  overcome  by  the  modifications  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  made  in  the  law.  These  changes 
will  be  noticed  in  the  following  chapters. 

The  Peoples'  Reception  of  the  Law. — This  act  was  passed 
by  a  large  majority  in  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  not  a 
single  amendment  being  proposed  in  either.  Almost  every  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature,  regardless  of  party,  had  been,  or  later 
became,  its  earnest  supporter  and  advocate.  Even  before  leaving 
for  their  homes,  steps  were  taken  to  initiate  the  work  of  school 
organization  in  the  several  counties.15  The  measure  was  received 
with  considerable  favor  by  the  people  of  the  State.  This  seems 

14  See  page  64. 

15  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  5. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  47 

somewhat  remarkable,  when  we  consider  that  a  very  large  part 
of  the  members  of  the  legislature  which  enacted  the  law  con- 
sisted of  negroes  and  typical  "  carpet-baggers."  It  was  no  small 
trial  to  the  white  people  of  the  State,  especially  the  intelligent, 
property-owning  class,  to  find  themselves  disfranchised  in  a  large 
measure,  barred  from  membership  in  the  legislature  and  other 
official  positions,  and  living  under  the  laws  enacted  by  their 
former  servants  or  by  "  new-comers,"  most  of  whom  possessed 
nothing  themselves  to  be  taxed.  It  simply  shows  their  patience 
and  forbearance  and  the  deep  interest  that  they  had  come  to 
feel  in  the  matter  of  education. 

The  Law  in  Operation. — As  soon  as  the  act  was  passed, 
January  30,  1869,  efforts  were  made  to  put  it  into  operation. 
The  Governor,  as  authorized  by  the  constitution,  had  already 
appointed  Hon.  C.  Thurston  Chase  as  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction;  and  as  soon  as  recommendations  for  county 
boards  of  education  were  received  from  the  representatives,  as 
provided  by  trie  law,  the  state  board  of  education  proceeded 
to  make  the  appointments  for  these  positions.  Either  permanent 
or  temporary  county  and  district  educational  organizations  began 
to  be  effected  rather  speedily.  Thus,  after  three  decades  of 
waiting,  Florida  inaugurated,  in  a  very  short  while,  a  public- 
school  system,  of  which  State  Superintendent  Chase,  in  a  very 
hopeful  spirit,  said :  "  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
system  will  triumph,  and,  becoming  a  part  of  the  permanent 
polity  of  the  State,  will  endure  to  bless  through  party  changes 
and  successive  administrations."  16 


SUMMARY 

The  establishment  of  the  present  system  of  public  education 
in  Florida  was  made  possible  by  certain  provisions  of  the  con- 
stitution of  1868  and  the  school  law  of  1869. 

This  constitution  required  the  legislature  to  provide  for  a 
public-school  system;  provided  for  a  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  a  state  board  of  education,  and  county  school 
superintendents;  established  a  common-school  fund;  ordered  a 
special  tax  of  not  less  than  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable 

16  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1870,  p.  106. 


48  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION    IN    FLORIDA 

property  in  the  State;  required  each  county  to  raise  annually, 
by  taxation,  a  sum  equal  to  one-half-  the  amount  received  by 
it  from  the  income  of  the  common-school  fund;  and  required 
the  legislature  to  provide  for  the  distribution  of  the  state  school- 
funds  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  youth  between  four  and 
twenty-one  years  of  age. 

The  school  law  of  1869  declared  that  there  should  be  estab- 
lished a  uniform  system  of  public  schools;  provided  for  a  state 
board  of  education,  a  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
county  boards  of  public  instruction,  county  superintendents  of 
schools,  local  school  trustees,  treasurers  and  agents;  made  pro- 
vision for  the  preparation,  certification  and  appointment  of  teach- 
ers; defined  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  teachers,  as  it  did 
also  those  of  the  various  school  officers;  and  provided  for  the 
support  of  the  system. 

Notwithstanding  the  weaknesses  of  this  law,  it  was  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  time  and  region  for  which  it  was  designed.  It 
passed  both  branches  of  the  legislature  by  a  large  vote,  and, 
considering  the  time  and  conditions  under  which  it  was  enacted, 
was  received  with  great  favor  by  the  people  of  the  State.  Very 
little  time  was  lost  in  putting  it  into  operation. 


CHAPTER     IV 
WORK  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL-SYSTEM  (1868-1884) 

The  Educational  Situation  in  1868. — In  1868,  when  Mr.  Chase 
was  appointed  as  the  first  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion under  the  constitution  of  that  year,1  the  educational  affairs 
of  Florida  were  certainly  in  a  deplorable  condition.  Prior  to 
this,  the  movement  for  public  education  had  made  considerable 
progress,  as  we  have  already  seen;  but,  on  account  of  the  inter- 
necine conflict  of  the  early  sixties,  it  received  a  set-back  from 
which  it  had  not  yet  recovered.  There  was,  at  this  time,  a  want 
of  school  funds,  a  lack  of  administrative  organization,  an  almost 
total  lack  of  suitable  school  buildings,  textbooks,  and  supplies, 
a  small  and  poorly  trained  teaching  force,  no  clearly  defined 
course  or  courses  of  study,  no  provision  for  secondary  or  higher 
education,  and  no  suitable  organic  school  law.  These  obstacles, 
together  with  a  sparseness  of  population,  an  apathy  on  the  part 
of  many  patrons,  a  fear  among  the  white  people  that  "  mixed  " 
schools  would  be  forced  upon  them,  and  other  serious  interfer- 
ences, constituted  an  enormous  hindrance,  not  only  for  that  year, 
but  for  fully  a  decade.  However,  there  were  a  few  factors 
which  aided  and  encouraged  the  people  interested  in  public  ed- 
ucation in  their  efforts.  Of  these  the  chief  ones  were:2  (i) 
a  number  of  devoted  and  self-sacrificing  teachers  who  continued 
their  work  even  when  their  compensation  was  not  enough  to 

1  The  state  superintendents  of  public  instruction  who  held  office  under 
the  constitution  of  1868  were: 

Hon.  C.  Thurston  Chase July  — ,  1868 

Rev.   Charles  Beecher March  18,  1871 

Hon.  Jonathan  C.  Gibbs    (colored) January  23,  1873 

Hon.  Samuel  B.  McLin  (secretary  of  state  and 

acting  superintendent) August  17,  1874 

Rev.  William  Watkin   Hicks March     I,  1875 

Hon.  William  P.  Haisley January    6,  1877 

Hon.  Eleazar  K.  Foster January  31,  1881 

Hon.  Albert  J.  Russell February  21,  1884 

2  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1869,  pp.  5~7- 

49 


50  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN   FLORIDA 

defray  their  necessary  expenses;  (2)  an  appropriation  by  the 
General  Government  of  about  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  for 
the  construction,  rental,  and  repair  of  school  buildings;  (3) 
gifts  of  several  thousand  dollars  from  certain  Northern  benev- 
olent associations  for  reviving  schools  that  had  been  closed ;  and 
(4)  gifts  from  private  individuals  for  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  schools.  The  money  expended  and  donated  by 
these  agencies  for  1868  amounted  to  more  than  forty  thousand 
dollars.  Had  it  not  been  for  these  gifts  of  labor  and  money, 
there  would  have  been  practically  no  public  schools  in  operation 
that  year.  As  it  was,  only  about  one  hundred  were  opened  in 
the  month  of  October,8  and  most  of  these  were  for  negroes. 

The  Educational  Revival  under  Chase,  1868-1870. — Thus  we 
get  some  idea  of  the  untoward  educational  situation  which  ex- 
isted in  Florida  in  1868.  We  see  that  during  that  year  very 
little  provision  was  made  by  the  State  for  the  education  of 
its  youth,  and  that  no  real  interest  in  this  matter  was  shown 
by  the  responsible  classes.  The  principal  of  the  common-school, 
like  that  of  the  seminary,  fund  had  been  spent  during  the  civil 
strife  for  war  supplies  and  other  purposes.  However,  consid- 
ering itself  the  guardian  of  both  these  funds,  the  State  undertook 
to  pay  annually  to  them  an  amount  equal  to  what  the  income 
from  the  principals  would  have  been  had  they  not  been  spent.4 
But  the  sum  paid  to  these  funds  was  very  small  —  about 
twenty  thousand  dollars,  six  thousand  of  which  went  to  the  two 
seminaries.5  Moreover,  what  little  income  there  was  from  the 
common-school  fund  was  not  disbursed  among  the  several  coun- 
ties for,  as  State  Superintendent  Chase  said,4  the  want  of  proper 
data  on  which  the  constitution  prescribed  the  apportionment 
should  be  made.  The  total  amount  expended  by  the  State  for 
the  schools  of  that  year  was  but  a  little  more  than  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars,  of  which  six  thousand  were  paid  to  the  sem- 
inary fund,5  as  we  have  just  stated,  and  nineteen  thousand 
two  hundred  were  spent,6  according  to  the  act  to  "  establish 
common  schools  for  freedmen,"  for  the  education  of  the  negroes 

3  See-  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  3. 

4  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1869,  p.  5. 

5  Ibid.,  p.  4. 

6  See  above,  p.  31. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  51 

of  the  State.  Hence,  very  few  schools  were  run  in  1868. 
They  consisted  entirely  of  the  East  Florida  Seminary,  at  Gaines- 
ville,7—  the  West  Florida  Seminary,  at  Tallahassee,8  having  been 
suspended  during  the  scholastic  year  i868-699 — private  schools 
opened  by  persons  of  both  races,  schools  for  f reedmen  conducted 
under  the  auspices  of  the  State,  and  schools,  for  f  reedmen  also, 
conducted  under  the  auspices  of  certain  benevolent  associations 
of  the  North.10  But  by  the  close  of  the  year  a  desire  for 
genuine  public  education  began  to  appear.  The  leader  in  this 
educational  movement  was  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, Hon.  C.  Thurston  Chase.  As  already  stated,  it  was 
he  who  compiled  the  school  law  of  1869  which,  as  we  saw  in 
the  last  chapter,  provided  for  a  uniform  system  of  public  schools ; 
it  was  he  who  instituted  the  new  system  of  schools;  and 
it  was  he  who  did  more  than  any  other  during  this  period  to 
perfect  the  administrative  organization  of  this  system,  and  to 
create  a  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  common  schools. 

This  comprehensive  scheme  of  universal  education  set  forth 
in  the  law  compiled  by  Mr.  Chase  was,  in  the  face  of  the  greatest 
obstacles,  constantly  and  zealously  advocated  by  its  author.  Al- 
though he  did  not  live  to  see  his  ideal  of  universal  education 
become  a  reality,11  it  was  his  privilege  to  witness  several  steps 
toward  this  goal.  The  adoption  of  his  plan  for  a  uniform 
system  of  free  schools,  to  use  his  own  words,12  "  appears  to 
have  reconciled,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  educational 
legislation  in  the  South,  the  extreme  views  of  conflicting  parties 
and  interests."  By  the  close  of  the  year  in  which  this  system 
of  education  was  adopted,  school  superintendents  had  been  ap- 

7  This  school  was  first  opened  in  1853  at  Ocala  (see  Laws  of  Florida, 
1852-53,  Chap.  509).    Here  it  remained  until  1866  when  it  was  removed  to 
Gainesville  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1865-66,  Chap.  1487). 

8  This  school  was  established  in  1857   (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1856-57, 
Chap.  796). 

9  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  10. 

10  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1869,  p.  5. 

11  Mr.  Chase  died  September  22,  1870,  nearly  two  years  before  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  of  office     After  a  temporary  vacancy,  Rev.  Charles 
Beecher,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  unexpired  term.    Mr.  Beecher  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office 
on  March  18,  1871. 

12  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  4. 


52  PUBLIC-SCHOOL   EDUCATION    IN    FLORIDA 

pointed,  and  had  qualified,  in  all  the  thirty-nine  counties  ex- 
cepting eleven,13  and  school  boards  had  been  appointed  in  all 
with  the  exception  of  one,  namely,  Brevard,  from  which  no  rec- 
ommendations in  regard  to  this  matter  had  been  received,  as 
provided  by  law;  organizations  had  been  completed  in  twenty- 
six  of  the  counties,14  temporary  organizations  having  been 
formed  in  others ; 15  and  schools  had  been  opened  in  twenty- 
seven,  the  private  schools  having  generally  merged  with  the 
public  schools.16  There  were  reported  over  two  hundred  fifty 
common  schools  in  operation,  with  an  enrollment  of  approx- 
imately seven  thousand  five  hundred  pupils ;  a  seminary  fund 
of  $73,933,  yielding  an  income  of  about  $6,000 ;  a  common-school 
fund  of  $223,595,  yielding  $14,145 ;  a  school  tax  in  eleven  of 
the  twenty-seven  counties  in  which  public  schools  had  been 
opened,17  and  private  contributions  for  the  establishment  and 

13  The  counties  having  county  school  superintendents  were : 
Alachua  Franklin  Liberty  St.  Johns 
Bradford  Gadsden  Madison  Suwannee 
Clay  Jackson  Marion  Taylor 
Columbia  Jefferson  Manatee  Volusia 
Dade  Lafayette  Nassau  Wakulla 
Duval  Leon  Orange  Walton 
Escambia  Levy  Putnam  Washington 

The  counties  without  county  school  superintendents  were: 
Baker  Hamilton  Holmes  Santa  Rosa 

Brevard  Hernando  Monroe  Sumter . 

Calhoun  Hillsborough       Polk 

14  The  counties  having  organized  school  boards   were : 
Alachua  Gadsden  Madison  Suwannee 


Bradford 

Hamilton 

Marion 

Taylor 

Clay 

Jackson 

Manatee 

Wakulla 

Columbia 

Jefferson 

Nassau 

Walton 

Dade 

Lafayette 

Orange 

Washington 

Duval 

Leon 

Putnam 

Franklin 

Levy 

St.  Johns 

15  In  Baker,  Calhoun,  Liberty,  Sumter,  and  Volusia  counties. 

16  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  pp.  5  and  17-35. 

17  The  counties  having  a  school  tax  were: 

Brevard  Escambia  Leon  Orange 

Columbia  Hamilton  Levy  Polk 

Dade  Lafayette  Marion 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  53 

maintenance  of  public  schools  in  ten  of  the  other  sixteen  coun- 
ties.18 Before  the  end  of  the  scholastic  year  1870-71,  yes, 
even  before  the  death  of  State  Superintendent  Chase  in  Sep- 
tember, 1870,  county  superintendents  had  been  selected  and  com- 
missioned to  act  in  nine  of  the  eleven  counties  which  were  with- 
out qualified  superintendents  at  the  close  of  the  scholastic  year 
1869-70;  administrative  organizations  had  been  completed  in  all 
but  one19  of  the  thirteen  counties  which  were  without  such 
organizations  the  previous  year;  instead  of  two  hundred  fifty 
schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  approximately  seven  thousand 
five  hundred,  as  was  the  tase  the  year  before,  three  hundred 
thirty-one  schools  had  been  opened,  with  an  enrollment  of  about 
fourteen  thousand;  and  a  school  tax  ranging  from  one  mill 
to  two  and  one-half  mills  had  been  levied  and  cheerfully  paid 
in  all  the  counties  but  four.20  Such  progress  as  this  would  be 
creditable  at  a  time  when  conditions  were  favorable;  much  more 
when  occurring  during  a  period  in  which  there  were  so  many 
serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  educational  progress. 

Hindrances  to  Universal  Education. — ;But  while  this  plan  for 
universal  education  marked  a  great  step  in  advance,  it  was,  as 
mentioned  above,  hampered  by  many  of  the  obstacles  which  in 
other  parts  of  the  South  greatly  delayed  the  establishment  of 
common  schools  at  public  expense.  In  this  chapter  we  shall 
endeavor  to  show  how  that  during  this  period  these  hindrances 
were  overcome  to  some  extent,  that  there  was  no  little  improve- 
ment in  the  public-school  system,  and  that  by  the  close  of  the 
period  there  had  been  laid  the  foundation  at  least  for  a  real 
system  of  universal  education. 

Means  of  Support  for  the  Public  Schools. — The  chief  hin- 
drance in  the  way  of  progress  in  the  public-school  system  for 
this  period  was  the  want  of  proper  financial  support.  The  con- 

18  The  counties  having  their  schools  supported,  either  entirely  or  in 
part,  by  private  contributions  were: 

Alachua  Madison  St.  Johns  Volusia 

Clay  Manatee  Taylor  Wakulla 

Gadsden  Polk 

19  Brevard. 

20  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1871,  p.  4- 


54  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

stitution  of  1868  made  certain  provisions  concerning  school  rev- 
enues, but  these  provisions  remained  inoperative  because  of  the 
lack  of  legislative  enactment  to  give  them  effect.  As  already 
stated,21  what  little  income  there  was  from  the  school  fund  was 
not  distributed  among  the  different  counties.  Consequently,  the 
chief  means  of  support  consisted  in  an  appropriation  from  the 
Federal  Government  of  something  like  twenty-five  thousand 
dollars  and  gifts  from  benevolent  associations  and  private  indi- 
viduals. The  sum  expended  and  donated  by  these  agencies  was 
a  little  over  forty  thousand  dollars,  which,  as  may  be  readily 
seen,  was  entirely  inadequate  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  schools  for  about  fifty  thousand  children. 

The  following  year  the  constitutional  provisions  respecting 
revenues  for  common  schools  were  made  effective  by  the  passage 
of  a  law  entitled  "  An  act  to  provide  for  the  revenues  for  com- 
mon schools  in  accordance  with  the  constitution." 22  This  act 
declared  that — 

"  Every  officer  who  may  hold  or  hereafter  receive  moneys  paid  as  an 
exemption  from  military  duty,  or  any  fine  collected  under  the  penal  laws 
of  the  State,  together  with  twenty-five  per  centum  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
sales  of  the  public  lands  of  the  State  which  may  have  been  received 
since  the  adoption  of  the  present  constitution,  or  may  hereafter  be  re- 
ceived from  above  resources,  shall  pay  the  same  to  the  treasurer  of 
the  State,  to  be  by  him  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  common-school  fund, 
any  act  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding." 

Any  officer  neglecting  or  refusing  to  do  this  was  to  be  regarded 
as  being  guilty  of  embezzlement,  and  fined  at  least  twice  the  sum 
withheld  by  him,  one-half  of  which  was  to  go  to  the  informer, 
and  the  other  half  to  the  common-school  fund.  The  act  further 
provided : 

"A  special  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  the  taxable  property 
of  the  State  shall  be  annually  levied  and  collected  in  like  manner  as  other 
state  taxes  are  levied  and  collected,  and  apportioned  annually  for  the 
support  and  maintenance  of  common  schools,  and  for  schools  for  the 
instruction  of  teachers,  which  schools  are  hereby  declared  to  be  common 
schools.  ..." 

In  1869,  the  year  in  which  the  foregoing  law  was  passed, 
the  school  expenditures  amounted  to  about  seventy  thousand 

21  Vide  ante,  p.  50. 

22  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  Extra  Session,  1869,  p.  45. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  55 

dollars,  of  which  about  thirty  thousand  were  received  from  the 
National  Government,  through  the  agency  of  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau,  for  the  construction,  rental,  and  repair  of  school  build- 
ings,23 nearly  seven  thousand  dollars  from  the  Peabody  Educa- 
tional Fund,2*  about  ten  thousand  from  county  taxes,  and  about 
five  thousand  from  private  contributions.  While  this  sum  was 
considerably  greater  than  the  amount  spent  for  public  education 
the  year  before,  it  was  still  totally  inadequate  for  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  schools  for  the  children  of  the  State. 
But  beginning  with  1869  there  was  a  steady  growth  throughout  the 
remainder  of  the  period  4n  the  financial  condition  of  the  public- 
school  system,  the  sum  expended  for  public  education  during  the 
scholastic  year  1883-84,  the  last  year  of  the  period,  being  over 
two  hundred  thousand  dollars.  This  growth  is  shown  by  Table  III. 
From  this  table  we  see  that  throughout  the  period,  with  the 
exception  of  but  three  years,  1874-75,  1877-78,  and  1879-80, 
there  was  a  gradual  and  continuous  increase  in  the  amount  of 

23  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  13. 

Twenty  school  buildings,  costing  fifty-two  thousand  six  hundred  dol- 
lars, were  constructed  by  the  National  Government  in  1868  and  1869. 
Eleven  of  these  were  built  during  the  year  1869  in  nine  different  counties, 
as  follows: 

Alachua   2.        Duval   2.        Nassau   i 

Clay    i        Jefferson    i        St.  Johns    I 

Columbia    i        Madison     i        Suwannee    i 

The  National  Government  also  assisted  in  the  building  of  two  others  in 
Suwannee  County. 

Furthermore,  assistance  was  rendered  by  paying  a  rental  of  ten  dol- 
lars each  on  seventy-five  school  buildings  in  nine  different  counties,  as 
follows : 

Alachua     16        Duval   9        Nassau    5 

Clay    9        Franklin    4        Orange 8 

Columbia     7        Gadsden     15        Walton  2 

This   seven   hundred   fifty   dollars,   while   appropriated   for   rent,   was,   as 
Superintendent  Chase  said,  used  in  paying  teachers'  salaries. 

24  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  14. 

The  following  offers  of  assistance  were  made  by  Dr.  Sears,  general 
agent  of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund:  St.  Augustine,  $1,000;  Jackson- 
ville, $1,000;  Monticello,  $700;  Apalachicola,  $500;  Lake  City,  $650; 
Bartow,  $300;  Tallahassee,  $1,000;  Quincy,  $600;  Madison,  $500;  Mari- 
anna,  $400;  making  a  total  of  $6,500. 


56 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN   FLORIDA 


TABLE   III 
PROGRESS  OF  SCHOOL  FUND  AND  EXPENDITURES    ( 1869-1884) a 


Years 

Invested 
common-school 
fund 

School 
expenditures 

By  what 
superintendent 
reported 

1869-70 
1870—71 

$223,595.30 

c 

$  7o,ooo.oo6 
100,914.  14** 

C.  Thurston  Chase 
Rev.  Charles  Beecher 

1871-72 
1872-73 
1873-74 

1874-75 
1875;—  76 

281,785.56 
284,671.67 
213,252.63" 

219,400.00 
229  900  oo 

101,820.20* 
103,907.06' 
139.870.61* 

131,433.20* 

e 

Rev.  Charles  Beecher 
Jonathan  C.  Gibbs 
Samuel  B.  McLin 

Rev.  W.  Watkin  Hicks 
Rev  W  Watkin  Hicks 

1876-77 
1877-78 
1878-79 

1879-80 
i  880-8  i 
1881-82 
1882-83 

235,2OO.OO 
243,5OO.OO 
243,90O.OO 

246,900.00 
259,284.00* 
286,984.25 
395,184.00^ 

139.340.19 
134.879.52 
140,703.60 

114,895.31 
I20,OOO.OO0>  *' 

I33.260.00' 
c 

William  P.  Haisley 
William  P.  Haisley 
William  P.  Haisley 

William  P.  Haisley 
Eleazar  K.  Foster 
Eleazar  K.  Foster 
Eleazar  K.  Foster 

1883-84 

476,184.00* 

2OI,82O.66fc 

Albert  J.  Russell 

0  All  the  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the  various 
state  superintendents,  excepting  those  relating  to  the  invested  school-fund  in 
1881,  1883  and  1884,  and  the  amount  expended  during  the  year  1881-82,  which 
have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the  state  treasurer  and  the  United  States 
commissioner  of  education. 

6  Approximately. 

c  No  data. 

d  This  was  the  amount  of  the  state  apportionment  and  the  estimated  schoo 
tax  collected  by  the  various  counties.  The  state  apportionment  ($59,146.50) , 
however,  was  issued  in  warrants,  and  not  all  of  it  was  realized;  but  just  how  much 
of  it  was  realized  it  is  impossible  to  say,  owing  to  the  lack  of  county  reports. 

*  Estimated  from  partial  data. 

f  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1874,  p.  37. 
°  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1874-76,  p.  88. 
h  See  report  of  state  treasurer. 

•'  Estimated  at  $117,532  by  State  Superintendent  Sheats  (see  Bien.  Rep.  of 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  62). 

*  See  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Educ.,  1882-83,  p.  xix. 

*  No  reports  from  Calhoun,  Dade,  Escambia,  and  Holmes  counties. 

The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  in  his  report  for  1883-84 
(p.  48),  gives  $172,718  as  the  amount  expended.  But  this  is  evidently  wrong 
(see  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1882-84,  p.  26). 

money  spent  for  school  purposes.  This  was  due  in  a  large 
measure,  of  course,  to  two  causes.  In  the  first  place,  it  was 
due  to  the  growth  of  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  common 
schools.  During  this  period  the  interest  in  common  schools  had 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  57 

so  increased  that  instead  of  only  eleven  counties  with  an  average 
school  tax  of  but  one  and  one-half  mills,  as  was  the  case  in 
1870,  there  were  in  1884  thirty-nine  counties  with  an  average 
school  tax  of  a  little  over  three  mills.25  In  1874  there  were 
five  counties  which  had  levied  a  tax  of  six  mills  or  more.26 
That  year,  however,  a  law  was  passed  fixing  five  mills  as  the 
maximal  rate  for  the  county  school-tax.27  This,  of  course,  did 
not  have  much  effect  upon  the  school  receipts  for  the  State  as 
a  whole,  since  there  were  so  few  counties  affected.28  But  five 
years  later  the  legislature  enacted  a  law  making  two  and  one-half 
mills  the  limit.29  This  did  affect  the  school  receipts,  and  consider- 
ably, too,  since  the  school  tax  in  a  majority  of  the  counties  at 
that  tirre  ranged  from  three  to  five  mills;  and,  hence,  it  explains 
the  decrease  in  school  expenditures  for  the  year  1879-80.  Public 
interest  in  education,  though,  was  so  great  that  a  law  was  passed 
in  1 88 1  fixing  two  and  one-half  mills  as  the  minimal  rate  and 
four  as  the  maxiftial  rate.30  Immediately  twenty-one  counties 
increased  their  school  tax  —  some  to  three  mills,  some  to  three 
and  one-half  mills,  and  still  others  to  four  mills.31  Had  it  not 

25  The  total  number.     However,  we  are  not  certain  concerning  two  of 
these  counties,  Dade  and   Hernando,  as  we  have  no  record  as  to  this 
matter;  but  we  do  know  that  they  levied  a  tax  of  two  and  one-half  mills 
the  year  previous. 

26  Lafayette,  6 ;  Marion,  6 ;  Monroe,  6 ;   St.  Johns,  7 ;  and  Washing- 
ton, 8. 

27  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1874,  Chap.  2030. 

28  The  decrease  in  school  expenditures  for  1875-76  may  be  explained 
partly  by  this  limitation,  but  principally  by  the  decrease  in  the  assessed 
value  of  the  property  of  the  several  counties  and  by  the  lack  of  contribu- 
tion from  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund. 

29  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1879,  Chap.  3100. 

30  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1881,  Chap.  3222. 

81  These  counties,  together  with  their  school  tax,  were : 

Alachua     3    mills  Nassau   4  mills 

Bradford   3    mills  Orange  4  mills 

Calhoun     3    mills  Polk    3  mills 

Clay    3    mills  Putnam    3  mills 

Duval    3.5  mills  St.  Johns  3  mills 

Franklin    4    mills  Sumter     3  mills 

Hernando    3    mills  Volusia    4  mills 

Lafayette  4    mills  Wakulla  3  mills 

Levy   4    mills  Walton     3  mills 

Marion ' 3.5  mills  Washington    4  mills 

Monroe    4    mills 


5&  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN   FLORIDA 

been  for  these  two  acts  just  mentioned,  it  is  quite  likely  that 
the  school  tax  in  the  different  counties  would  have  been  even 
higher  than  it  was  at  the  end  of  this  period.  Anyway,  the 
sentiment  in  favor  of  education  for  the  masses  had  so  grown 
that  the  tax-rate  for  common  schools  had  more  than  doubled 
since  1870.  But  in  addition  to  the  interest  taken  in  public  ed- 
ucation, another  cause  for  the  steady  and  constant  increase  in 
the  school  expenditures  was  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  State. 
During  this  period  the  wealth  of  the  State  had  more  than 
doubled.  In  1870  the  assessed  value  of  the  property  of  the 
State  was  only  $29,700,022,  while  in  1884  it  was  $60,042,655. 32 
This  increase  in  wealth,  together  with  the  growing  interest  on 
the  part  of  the  people  in  the  educational  welfare  of  the  youth, 
went  a  long  way  in  overcoming  the  chief  hindrance  to  progress 
in  the  public-school  system. 

Educational  Organisation  and  Administration. — Another  hin- 
drance to  educational  progress  during  this  period  was  the  lack 
of  efficient  organization  and  administration.  This  was  due  partly 
to  certain  defects  in  the  common-school  law,  but  chiefly  to 
a  failure  on  the  part  of  the  administrative  officers  to  carry  out 
faithfully  and  judiciously  the  provisions  of  this  law.  Some  of 
these  defects  have  already  been  indicated.33  However,  they 
are  well  worth  a  somewhat  more  detailed  study. 

i.  The  state  and  county  superintendents  of  schools  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  executive  head  of  the  State.  Consequently,  there 
was  a  temptation  to  play  politics  at  the  expense  of  the  schools, 
and  too  often  this  temptation  proved  irresistible.  Men  were 
chosen,  not  on  the  basis  of  fitness  for  service,  but  with  reference 
to  party  affiliation,  thereby  working  disastrous  results  in  respect 
to  the  educational  welfare  of  the  youth  of  the  State.  This  was 
especially  true  from  June  8,  1868,  until  January  I,  1877,  during 
which  time  the  government  of  the  State  was  in  the  hands  of 
a  political  party  that  was  neither  elected  by,  nor  in  favor  with, 
the  majority  of  the  intelligent  voters  and  property-owning  people 
of  the  State.  Hence,  there  were  a  great  many  who  did  not 
co-operate  in  the  educational  movements  as  they  would  have 

32  These  figures  have  been  taken  from  the  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  62-63. 

33  Vide  ante,  p.  46- 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM 


59 


done,  had  they  been  in  sympathy  with  the  party  in  power.  But 
with  the  beginning  of  the  administration  of  Governor  George 
F.  Drew,  a  "  conservative,"  as  a  member  of  the  opposing  party 
was  then  called,  there  was  an  increased  interest,  and,  therefore, 
increased  progress  in  the  public-school  system. 

2.  The  county  superintendents  of  schools  were  not  compelled 
to  keep  proper  records  and  to  make  complete  reports  to  the  state 
superintendent.  As  a  result,  many  of  the  county  superintendents 
failed  to  perform  their  duty  in  this  respect.  In  nearly  every 
report  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  especially 
during  the  first  half  of  ttie  period,  this  criticism  was  made,  and 
in  many  cases  it  was  suggested  that  a  law  be  enacted  compelling 
these  officers  to  keep  systematic  records  and  to  make  satisfactory 
reports.  No  such  law,  however,  was  passed,  but  with  the  ex- 
ercise of  greater  care  in  the  selection  of  the  county  superin- 
tendents, more  accurate,  reliable,  and  immediate  records  were 
kept,  more  satisfactory  reports  were  made,  and  hence  greater 
efficiency  in  the  common  schools  was  promoted. 


TABLE  IV 

NUMBER  OF  COUNTIES  REPORTING  TO  THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

(1870-1884)  3* 


Years 

No.  of 
counties 
reporting 

No.  of 
counties  not 
reporting 

Years 

No.  of 
counties 
reporting 

No.  of 
counties  not 
reporting 

1870 
1871 
1872 

1873 
1874 

1875 
1876 
1877 

28 
36 
32 
37 
25 

a 

]    b 

39 

ii 
3 

7 

2 

14 

a 

b 
O 

1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 

39 
39 

39* 

6 

30 
37 

0 
0 
0 

b 

\    b 

9 

2 

0  No  data  as  to  the  exact  number,  but  Superintendent  Hicks  says  that  many 
failed  to  make  any  report. 

6  No  data. 

34  The  figures  of  this  table  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the 
various  state  superintendents  of  public  instruction.  Note  the  large  num- 
ber of  counties  which  failed  to  report  previous  to  1877.  The  reports  that 
were  sent  in  were  unsatisfactory,  being  very  unsystematic  and  apparently 
very  incomplete. 


60 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


3.  Provision  was  made  in  the  school  law  of  1869  that  the 
census  of  the  school  population  in  each  county  should  be  taken 
by  the  county  tax  assessor  once  every  year.  This  was  a  duty 
which  should  have  been  required  of  an  officer  over  whom  the 
county  board  of  public  instruction  exercised  direction  and  con- 
trol, say,  the  county  superintendent  of  schools;  and  instead  of 
the  enumeration  being  taken  annually,  it  should  have  been  taken 
about  once  every  four  or  five  years.  But  since  this  task  was  as- 
signed to  one  who  had  no  such  connection  with  this  board,  the  cen- 

TABLE  V 

NUMBER  OF  COUNTIES  REPORTING  THEIR  CENSUS  RETURNS  TO  THE  STATE 
DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION   (1870-1884)  35 


No.  of 

No.  of 

No.  of 

No.  of 

Years 

counties 

counties  not 

Years 

counties 

counties  not 

reporting 

reporting 

reporting 

reporting 

1870 

28° 

ii 

1875 

0 

« 

1871 

26° 

13 

1876 

37' 

2 

1872 

b 

b 

1880 

39" 

o 

1873 

24C 

15 

1884 

37 

2 

1874 

25" 

14 



0  Several  of  the  reports  from  these  counties  were  incomplete. 

6  The  State  Superintendent  says  that  very  few  returns  were  forwarded  to  the 
state  department  of  education. 

e  The  reports  from  two  of  these  counties  were  incomplete. 

d  Probably  more. 

«  The  State  Superintendent  says  that  very  few  returns  were  received.  Many 
of  those  that  were  received  later  were  very  incomplete. 

*  The  returns  from  one  county  were  deficient;  from  two,  inaccurate. 

*  The  returns  from  some  of  these  were  incomplete  and  inaccurate. 

sus  was  oftentimes  either  not  taken  at  all  or  the  census  records 
were  very  inaccurate  and  incomplete ;  and  since  the  enumeration 
was  taken  annually  instead  of  quadrennially  or  quinquennially,  it 
called  for  the  expenditure  of  money  which  should  have  been 
spent  for  teachers'  salaries  and  school  buildings.  A  majority 
of  the  state  superintendents  of  schools,  and  many  of  the  county 
superintendents,  suggested  that  the  school  law  be  amended  so 
as  to  provide  for  the  taking  of  the  school  census  by  the  county 

35  The  figures  of  this  table  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the 
several  superintendents  of  public  instruction. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  5! 

superintendents;  and  many  of  them  suggested  also  that  the 
enumeration  be  taken  every  five  years  instead  of  once  every 
year.  Had  such  amendments  been  made,  it  would  have  resulted 
in  greater  accuracy  and  completeness  in  the  census  returns  and 
a  large  saving  in  expenses.  However,  the  law  was  amended  in 
i87436  so  as  to  provide  for  the  taking  of  the  census  in  1876, 
and  quadrennially,  instead  of  annually,  thereafter.  This  resulted 
in  somewhat  more  satisfactory  census  returns,  lessened  the 
school  expenditures  considerably,  and,  hence,  made  for  greater 
educational  progress. 

4.  The  members  of  the  board  of  public  instruction  in  each 
county  were  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  representatives  of   the  county  and  the 
nomination  of  the  county  superintendent  of   schools;   and  the 
maximal  number  of  the  board  was  fixed  at  five.    In  1882  State 
Superintendent  Foster  suggested  that  this  mode  of  appointment 
should  be   changed.37     Had  they  been  selected  in  a  different 
manner,  say,  elected  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  county,  it 
would,  in  all  probability,  have  resulted  in  better  qualified  mem- 
bers, since  they  would  have  been  selected  more  with  reference 
to  their  fitness  for  the  work  than  with  reference  to  the  ones  to 
whom  they  had  given,  or  promised  to  give,  their  political  sup- 
port.   Also,  had  the  maximal  number  been  reduced  to  three  in- 
stead of  five,  as  was  recommended  by  four  of  the  state  super- 
intendents,38 this  would  have  diminished  the  expense  and,  as  ex- 
perience has  shown,  increased  their  efficiency.     No  such  change 
was  made  in  the  law;  but  during  the  administration  of  State 
Superintendent   Haisley,    and    apparently    thereafter,    the    state 
board   of   education   reduced   the   number   of   members   of   the 
various  county  boards  from  five  to  three,  save  in  a  few  of  the 
most  densely  inhabited  counties.    This  plan,  says  Superintendent 
Haisley,39  worked  well,  and  saved  the  State  nearly  fifteen  hun- 
dred dollars  a  year  —  another  aid  to  educational  progress. 

5.  Instead  of  making  the  county  treasurer  of  each  county  the 
treasurer  of  its  school  fund,  the  general  provisions  on  schools 

36  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1874,  Chap.  2008,  p.  82. 

37  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1881  and  1882,  p.  23. 

38  Beecher,  Gibbs,  Haisley,  and  Foster. 

89  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  3. 


62  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

provided  for  the  appointment  of  this  officer  by  the  county  board 
of  education.  Consequently,  this  increased  the  school  expenses 
more  than  was  necessary.  In  1877  a  law  was  passed  making 
the  county  treasurers  of  the  different  counties  of  the  State  the 
custodians  of  the  school  funds  of  their  respective  counties.40 
"  This  law,"  says  Superintendent  Haisley,41  "  has  fully  met  my 
expectations,42  and  been  a  saving  of  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent 
to  the  school  fund,  as  compared  to  the  amount  paid  treasurers 
under  the  old  law."  This  change  was  undoubtedly  conducive 
to  greater  efficiency  in  the  schools. 

6.  The  qualifications  of  the  county  school  superintendent  were 
not  defined.  Hence,  men  were  frequently  chosen  for  this  most 
important  office  in  the  public-school  system  who  were  almost 
entirely  unqualified  for  the  position.  They  were  selected  with- 
out any  reference  to  their  personal  qualities,  their  academic  and 
professional  preparation,  their  sympathy  with  the  system,  and 
their  practical  experience  in  school  work.  Although  some  of 
them  were  well  qualified,  and  were  faithful  and  zealous  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties,  a  great  majority  of  them  were 
totally  unfit  for  the  work,  and  altogether  incapable  of  perform- 
ing the  duties  involved.  This  is  quite  evident  from  the  letters 
and  reports  sent  to  the  state  superintendent.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, then,  that  the  schools  did  not,  in  many  cases,  attain  a 
higher  standard,  and  that  quite  a  number  of  people  regarded 
the  office  of  county  superintendent  as  useless  and  involving  an 
unnecessary  expense.  In  this  connection  Hon.  Samuel  B.  McLin, 
acting  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  in  his  report  for  the 
year  ending  September  30,  1874,  uses  the  following  language : 43 

"  One  of  the  best  methods  of  securing  county  superintendents  would 
be  to  create  a  state  board  of  examiners,  and  require  of  each  aspirant  for 
this  office  a  certificate  of  merit  from  said  board  before  making  his 
appointment.  It  is  a  solecism  in  our  school  system,  that  while  no  teacher 
is  employed  or  paid  without  due  examination  and  licensure,  no  credentials 
or  qualifications  are  required  of  the  man  who  conducts  the  examination, 
and  issues  or  refuses  to  issue  the  certificate.  It  is 'submitted  that  this  is 
neither  reasonable  nor  safe,  for  the  wise  provision  of  the  law  in  requiring 

40  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1877,  Chap.  2085. 

41  See  op.  cit.,  p.  23. 

42  It  was  Superintendent  Haisley  who  recommended  this  change. 

43  Vide  pages  53-54- 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  63 

proof  of  the  fitness  and  competency  of  teachers,  is  obviously  liable  under 
such  conditions  to  be  negatived  and  nullified  in  any  county  at  any  time. 
Some  evidence  of  competency,  some  tangible  proof  of  the  possession  of 
proper  qualifications  and  capacity  to  discharge  its  duties,  should  be  made 
a  condition  of  eligibility  to  the  office  of  county  superintendent.  Either  let 
it  be  divested  of  its  natural  attributes  and  rendered  worthless  as  an  edu- 
cational force,  or  let  the  door  be  closed  against  worthlessness  and  in- 
competency." 

7.  And  lastly,  the  unit  of  organization  for  administering  the 
school  system  was  the  district,  that  is,  a  subdivision  of  the  county 
having  usually  but  one  school.  The  administration  of  the  ed- 
ucational affairs  in  this  relatively  small  area  was  entrusted  al- 
most entirely  to  a  board  of  trustees  consisting  of  not  more  than 
five  members  and  appointed  by  the  county  board  of  education 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  patrons.  To  this  board  was 
delegated  such  powers  and  duties  as  the  erection,  rental,  and 
repair  of  school  buildings,  the  employment  of  teachers,44  the 
oversight  of  instruction  and  the  disciplining  of  pupils  —  powers 
and  duties  which  should  be  given  to  none  but  competent  men. 
As  to  the  effects  of  this  system,  they  were  readily  apparent. 
It  is  needless  to  mention  them  here,  for  they  have  been  pointed 
out  by  our  educators  for  the  last  fifty  years  or  more.  It  may 
be  said,  however,  that  the  men  selected  as  trustees  were  usually 
very  incompetent  and  inefficient;  they  were  short-sighted,  un- 
progressive,  and,  still  worse,  men  of  very  low  ideals.  The 
system  was  unnecessary,  expensive,  and  stood  in  the  way  of 
uniform  educational  progress.  Such  advancement  as  was  made 
during  this  period  was  made,  not  because  of,  but  in  spite  of, 
the  district  school  trustees. 

Thus  we  have  noticed  the  defects  in  the  school  law  which 
constituted  a  hindrance  to  educational  progress.  But  a  greater 
hindrance  than  these,  perhaps,  was  the  failure  to  administer  this 
law  faithfully  and  judiciously.  Speaking  along  this  line,  Gover- 
nor Drew,  in  his  message  to  the  legislature,  January  I,  1877, 
said : 45 

44  The  common-school  law  virtually  gave  the  trustees  the  power  to 
employ  the  teachers,   for   section   19,  clause  4,  of  the  law  required  that 
the  county  board  of  public  instruction  in  each  county  should  employ  such 
teachers  as  were  satisfactory  to  the  trustees. 

45  See  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1876,  p.  65. 


64  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

"  Our  public-school  system,  though  a  good  one  in  the  main,  is  not 
without  its  fault's  and  imperfections,  among  which  may  be  named  a  tend- 
ency in  its  practical  working  to  draw  an  undue  portion  of  the  funds 
to  the  towns  and  more  densely  populated  localities,  while  the  sparsely 
settled  and  remote  portions  of  the  large  counties  are  deprived  of  the 
benefits.  A  plan  is  now  under  consideration  which,  it  is  believed,  will 
lessen,  if  not  remove,  that  defect.  Other  slight  changes,  with  a  view  of 
lessening  the  expense  of  operating  and  increasing  the  fund  for  distribu- 
tion, may  be  made  when  it  can  be  done  to  advantage.  But  where  there 
can  be  no  change  without  crippling  or  destroying  the  efficiency  of  the  sys- 
tem, no  change  should  be  attempted.  There  has  been  more  injustice 
done  by  failure  to  comply  with  and  faithfully  carry  out  the  provisions  of 
the  law  than  from  any  defect  of  the  system  itself.  Section  13,  paragraph 
6,  of  the  common-school  law  requires  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction to  apportion,  annually,  the  interest  of  the  common-school  fund 
and  the  fund  raised  by  the  one-mill  tax  authorized  by  sections  4  and  5 
of  article  8  of  the  constitution  among  the  several  counties  of  the  State, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  residing  therein  between  the  ages 
of  4  and  21  years.  General  provisions  on  schools,  section  38,  provide  that 
it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  tax  assessor  of  each  county,  at  the  time  of 
assessing  the  taxes  of  his  county,  to  take  the  census  of  all  the  children  of 
the  county  between  the  ages  of  4  and  21.  It  appears  from  the  accompany- 
ing report  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  that  the  census  has 
not  been  taken  since  1873.  The  work  was  begun  in  1876,  but  not  com- 
pleted. The  census  records  of  23  counties  only  are  found  in  the  office 
cf  the  department.  There  must  have  been  a  large  increase  of  scholastic 
population  since  1873;  consequently  an  apportionment  made  on  74,228, 
the  number  at  that  time,  is  incorrect." 

Another  weakness  in  this  connection  was  the  great  influence 
played  by  party  politics  in  the  selection  of  school  officers  and 
in  the  performance  of  their  duties  on  the  part  of  these  officers. 
Too  frequently  men  were  chosen,  not  because  of  their  compe- 
tency and  worth,  but  because  of  their  political  opinions  and  party 
affiliations ;  and  oftentimes,  so  Hon.  McLin  tells  us,46  did  the 
county  superintendency  fall  into  the  hands  of  men  who  pros- 
tituted it  to  their  political  advancement  or  pecuniary  gain.  As 
he  says,46  "  This  should  not  be  ....  The  interests  involved 
are  too  weighty,  the  results  too  far-reaching,  to  be  sacrificed 
to  such  base  purposes."  Public  education  should  have  no  con- 
nection whatever  with  either  sectarianism  or  partisanship;  but 
all  who  are  in  any  way  connected  with  the  public-school  system 
should  be  chosen  on  the  basis  of  their  fitness  to  do  the  work 
required  of  them,  regardless  of  their  religious  and  political  beliefs. 

46  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub  Ins.,  1873-74,  P-  53- 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  65 

Still  another  weakness  was  the  lack  of  a  strong  bond  and  a 
helpful  relation  between  the  state  and  local  educational  authori- 
ties. Section  13,  clause  3,  of  the  school  law  of  1869  provided 
that  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  should  call 
meetings  of  the  county  superintendents  and  other  school  officers 
for  the  purpose  of  imparting  and  obtaining  information  and 
suggestions  on  the  practical  workings  of  the  school  system.  It 
appears  from  the  annual  reports  of  the  state  superintendents 
that  no  such  meetings  were  held.  However,  in  1877  the  state 
board  of  education,  believing  that  a  visit  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent to  each  county  in  the  State  would  greatly  promote  the 
•efficiency  of  the  school  system,  decided  to  use  the  five  hundred 
dollars  per  annum  which  had  been  appropriated  up  to  that  time 
as  a  contingent  fund  to  the  state  superintendent's  office  in  de- 
fraying the  expenses  of  such  a  tour.  Superintendent  Haisley 
visited  all  the  counties  of  the  State  once  every  two  years,  met 
with  and  instructed  each  of  the  county  boards  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  respect  to  the  proper  construction  of  the  law  and  their 
official  duties,  and  thus  strengthened  the  bond  between  the  state 
and  local  authorities,  and  stimulated  an  interest  and  enthusiasm 
that  could  not  have  been  brought  about,  perhaps,  in  any  other 
way.  His  official  tour  of  the  State  in  1877  was  the  first  that 
had  ever  been  made.  His  successors,  however,  did  much  along 
this  line,  and  otherwise,  in  strengthening  the  bond  of  those  en- 
gaged in  a  common  work  and  in  popularizing  the  public  schools. 

Other  weaknesses  were  the  failure  of  the  tax  assessors  to  take 
the  census  of  the  youth,  of  the  county  commissioners  to  levy 
an  adequate  tax,  and  of  the  county  superintendents  of  schools 
to  make  accurate  reports  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  But  with  the  exercise  of  greater  care  in  the  selection 
of  these  officers,  the  increase  of  public  sentiment  in  favor  of 
common  schools,  and  greater  effort  on  the  part  of  the  central 
authorities  to  be  of  help  to  the  local  authorities,  these  weak- 
nesses were  almost  entirely  overcome  by  the  close  of  the  period. 

The  School  Plants.— Still  another  obstacle  to  educational 
progress  during  this  period  was  that  arising  from  the  want  of 
suitable  school  plants.  As  a  rule,  the  number  of  school  buildings 
was  entirely  inadequate  to  accommodate  the  children  of  school  age ; 
and  what  buildings  there  were,  were  exceedingly  poor.  Most 


66  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  them  were  small,  built  of  indifferent  materials,  badly  con- 
structed, unfavorably  located,  and  almost  completely  devoid  of 
necessary  equipment. 

In  1869  there  was  almost  a  total  lack  of  suitable  school 
buildings  and  equipment.  Speaking  of  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
progress  in  the  common  schools  for  that  year,  the  superintendent 
of  Alachua  County,  Mr.  S.  F.  Halliday,  in  his  report  to  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  has  this  to  say : 4T 

"  The  want  of  suitable  school  buildings   is  another   serious  obstacle. 
Several  of  the  schoolhouses  in  this  county  are  made  of  logs,  and  that  in 
the  coarsest  and   rudest  manner.     Some   are   destitute   of  fire-places  or 
stoves.     The  pupils  during  the  inclement  weather  being  uncomfortable,  of* 
course  cannot  apply  themselves  closely  to  their  studies." 

In  another  place  he  says : 47 

"  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  still  about  six  hundred  youth,  who  are 
not  attending  school  for  want  of  suitable  accommodations." 

Another  superintendent,  Mr.  J.  C.  Emerson,  of  Nassau  County, 
says  in  his  report  to  the  state  superintendent : 48 

"...  There  are  seven  schools  in  operation.  .  .  . 

"  Two  are  considered  comfortable  and  convenient ;  the  others  need  fur- 
niture, blackboards,  and  most  of  the  appliances  usually  employed  as  aids 
to  instruction." 

Still  another  county  school  superintendent,  Mr.  James  H.  Went- 
worth,  of  Taylor  County,  speaking  of  the  schoolhouses  in  his 
county,  says  in  his  report  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction : 40 

"The  8  in  use  are  provided  by  the  citizens  free  of  rent.  Each  has  a 
broom,  a  drinking-cup,  and  a  well  of  good  water.  Four  have  water- 
buckets  ;  three  have  chairs  and  tables  for  the  teachers ;  one  is  well  seated. 
None  have  any  apparatus  or  blackboards.  All  are  without  outhouses. 
Very  considerable  repairs  are  needed." 

Many  others  could  be  quoted,  but  these  quotations  are  enough 
to  show  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  school  buildings  and 
equipment  in  the  State  for  the  year  1869. 

This  condition  of  the  school  plants  was  due,  of  course,  chiefly 
to  apathy  on  the  part  of  the  patrons,  the  lack  of  finances,  and 

47  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  18. 

48  Ibid.,  p.  30. 
4»  Ibid.,  p.  33. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  57 

inefficiency  on  the  part  of  the  school  officers.  So  with  greater 
interest  in  public  education,  increased  prosperity  of  the  people, 
and  better  qualified  county  school  boards  and  county  school 
superintendents,  there  was  a  decided  improvement  in  both  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  school  plants  in  the  several  counties. 
While  there  was  never  a  time  during  the  period  in  which  there 
were  adequate  and  suitable  accommodations  for  all  the  children 
of  school  age,  there  were  a  number  of  counties  in  which  much 
progress  was  made  along  this  line.  Mr.  John  F.  Bartholf ,  county 
superintendent  of  Manatee  County,  in  a  letter  to  Jonathan  C. 
Gibbs,  state  superintendent  of  schools,  October  8,  1873,  says:50 

"  We  are  erecting  some  fine  frame  schoolhouses,  well  filled  up  with 
desks,  seats,  teacher's  stand,  etc.,  the  first  in  this  county — as  heretofore 
our  schools  have  been  kept  in  some  old  log  outbuilding  or  other,  badly 
exposed  to  the  weather,  and  almost  entirely  destitute  of  proper  desks 
and  seats." 

Rev.  W.  Watkin  Hicks,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, in  his  biennial  report  submitted  to  Governor  M.  L.  Stearns 
on  December  31,  i876,51  says  that  there  were  some  excellent 
school  buildings  in  Florida.  Another  county  superintendent, 
Mr.  A.  Crenshaw,  of  Volusia  County,  in  his  report  to  the  state 
superintendent,  December  15,  1880,  states  that  there  was  a  dis- 
position on  the  part  of  the  patrons  to  improve  the  school  build- 
ings and  to  supply  more  needed  furniture.52  And  Hon.  E.  K. 
Foster,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  in  his  biennial 
report  for  the  school  years  1881  and  i882,53  says  that  in  many 
localities  excellent  school  buildings  were  being  erected  and  fur- 
nished with  a  view  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  school 
children. 

The  following  table  will  partially  show  what  was  done  during 
this  period  in  the  way  of  providing  suitable  school  buildings. 

The  Courses  of  Study. — A  fourth  hindrance  to  progress  in 
the  common  schools  for  this  period  was  that  arising  from  the 
lack  of  outline  courses  of  study.  For  nine  years  there  was 
absolutely  nothing  done,  either  by  the  state  or  local  authorities, 

50  See  Rep.  of  Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1873,  P-  49- 

51  See  page  95. 

52  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  p.  53- 

53  See  pages  21-22. 


68 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


TABLE  VI 

THE  NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS  OPERATED  AND  TOTAL  VALUE  OF  SCHOOL  PROP- 
ERTY ( 1869-1884)5* 


Years 

Number  of 
schools 

Value  of 
property 

Years 

Number  of 
schools 

Value  of 
property 

1869—70 

2  ^O° 

1877-78 

992 

$116,934'* 

1870—71 

»*J 

1878-79 

,050 

1871—72 

444 

1879-80 

.131 

132,729* 

1872—7"? 

eil 

i  880-8  i 

,165 

187^—74 

^7° 

1881-82 

,234 

1874—71; 

«;o86 

1882-83 

,479 

1875-76 

l876—77 

675C 
887 

1883-84 

.504 

210,115' 

0  Estimated  from  partial  data. 

6  No  reports  as  to  the  number  of  schools  from  nine  counties.     Estimated  at 
664  by  Superintendent  Sheats. 

c  No  reports  from  fifteen  counties.     Estimated  at  770  by  Mr.  Sheats. 
d  See  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Ed.,  1878,  p.  xvi. 

*  See  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Ed.,  1880,  p.  xxii. 

*  See  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Ed.,  1883-84,  p.  xxi. 

in  formulating  suggestive  courses  or  plans  for  the  guidance  of 
the  teachers.55  The  content  of  the  courses  offered,  therefore, 
differed  greatly,  not  only  among  the  different  counties  of  the 
State,  but  also  among  the  various  schools  in  the  same  county. 
As  a  rule,  the  curricula  were  very  narrow,  consisting  simply  of 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  spelling ;  a  few  schools,  however, 
taught  some  geography  and  English  grammar.  The  teaching  of 
any  other  subjects  was  very  much  discouraged  by  some.  Even 
State  Superintendent  Haisky  recommended  "  that  no  other 
branches  be  introduced  except  in  the  cities  and  larger  towns, 
where  special  charters  have  been  granted  to  allow  the  citizens 
to  tax  themselves  in  order  to  support  schools  of  higher  grades."  5<J 
There  were  others,  though,  who  were  opposed  to  limiting  the 

54  The  figures  of  this  table  have  been  taken  from  the  report's  of  the 
various  state  superintendents,  excepting  those  in  regard  to  the  value  of 
the  school  property. 

55  Not  until  1877  was  anything  undertaken  in  this  connection.     That 
year  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Hon.  Wm.  P.  Haisley, 
at  the  request  of  the  state  board  of  education,  outlined  some  courses  of 
instruction  for  the  schools,  but  they  were  introduced  that  session  in  only 
eight  schools,  four  white  and  four  colored. 

56  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  23. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  69 

public  schools  simply  to  these  branches.  They  believed  that  the 
elementary  schools  should  be  utilized  to  the  fullest  possible  ex- 
tent as  a  means  of  benefiting  all  classes  of  students.  As  a 
result  of  their  efforts,  by  the  close  of  the  period  the  courses  of 
instruction  in  many  of  the  schools  had  become  considerably 
broader.  Instead  of  including  simply  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
and  spelling,  they  included,  in  addition  to  these  subjects,  English 
composition,  physical  and  political  geography,  United  States 
history,  and  the  outlines  of  general  history.  This  enrichment 
was  a  great  help  in  raising  the  standard,  and  in  promoting  the 
progress,  of  public  education. 

Textbooks  Used. — Closely  connected  with  the  want  of  proper 
courses  of  study  was  the  want  of  suitable  textbooks.  Speaking 
on  this  point,  Rev.  Charles  Beecher,  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  in  his  report  for  the  year  ending  September 
30,  1871,  says:87 

"  Next  to  the  financial  obstacles  to  educational  progress  is  that  arising 
from  the  want  of  suitable  textbooks.  A  large  proportion  of  the  people, 
if  not  a  majority,  are  not  able  to  buy.  Consequently,  a  large  number  of 
the  pupils  are  destitute  of  textbooks.  Those  who  are  supplied  exhibit 
almost  every  variety  of  textbooks  knewn.  In  the  language  of  one  of 
the  county  superintendent's,  '  the  pupils  are  furnished  by  their  parents  with 
every  description  of  books,  such  as  they  could  pick  here  and  there;  the 
only  book  of  one  kind  much  in  use  being  Webster's  Elementary  Spelling- 
book.'  The  miscellany  would  be  laughable  if  it  were  not  so  harassing 
and  painful  to  both  teacher  and  pupils." 

Language  very  similar  to  Mr.  Beecher's  was  used  by  many  of 
the  county  superintendents  of  this  period,  and  by  all  the  other 
state  superintendents,  with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Chase  and  Mr. 
Russell.68  Let  us  notice,  for  example,  some  words  which  State 
Superintendent  Foster  penned  ten  years  later:59 

"  It  has  been  my  observation,  in  visiting  such  schools  as  I  have  in  the 
State,  that  their  efficiency  has  been  very  much  retarded  by  the  want  of 
uniformity  in  the  textbooks  used,  this  being  especially  the  case  in  the 
country  schools.  One  teacher  informed  me  that  in  a  school  of  twenty- 
seven  pupils  there  were  twenty-three  different  kinds  of  textbooks,  many 
of  them  being  old  and  for  the  most  part  by  different  authors;  this  fact 
compelled  him  to  have  nearly  twenty  classes.  No  little  expense  is  caused 

67  See  page  6. 

68  Gibbs,  McLin,  Hicks,  Haisley,  and  Foster. 

59  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1881  and  1882,  p.  22. 


70  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

to  the  parents  by  teachers  endeavoring  to  introduce  books  of  their  own 
choice,  and  instances  have  come  to  my  knowledge  where  textbooks  adopted 
by  a  county  board  have  met  with  such  opposition  from  the  teachers  as  to 
render  such  adoption  almost  nugatory." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  lack  of  suitable  texts  was  not  confined 
just  to  a  few  counties  and  for  a  short  period  of  time,  but  that 
it  was  almost  state-wide  and  extended  throughout  the  period. 

How  to  overcome  this  serious  drawback  to  the  progress  of 
education  constituted  one  of  the  most  perplexing  problems  of 
the  time.  Various  solutions  were  proposed,  one  of  which  was 
state  adoption  of  a  uniform  series  of  textbooks  at  the  public 
expense.  In  this  connection,  State  Superintendent  Beecher 
writes : 60 

"...  The  law  provides  that  there  shall  be  a  uniform  series  for  the 
State.  Such  a  series  has  been  selected.  But  how  can  it  be  introduced? 
Thus  far  it  has  but  added  to  the  confusion.  It  is  impossible,  in  view 
of  the  slender  means  of  the  people,  to  force  the  series  in  at  their  ex- 
pense. It  must  be  done  at  the  public  expense.  I  therefore  strongly  recom- 
mend the  passage  of  an  act  making  it  the  duty  of  boards  of  public  instruc- 
tion to  include  this  in  their  itemized  estimate  of  annual  expenses  as  now 
required  by  law;  and  prohibiting  the  use,  after  September  30,  1872,  of  any 
textbooks,  except  those  of  the  state  series.  The  books  to  be  not  the 
private  property  of  individual  pupils,  but  the  property  of  county  boards, 
for  the  use  of  schools,  parents  or  guardians  being  held  accountable  for 
their  injury  or  loss,  provided  that  parents  who  prefer  to  purchase  for 
their  children  or  wards  be  encouraged  to  do  so." 

Hon.  Samuel  B.  McLin,  however,  in  his  report  for  the  year 
ending  September  30,  i874,61  points  out  the  impropriety  of  the 
adoption  of  a  uniform  series  of  texts  for  the  entire  State.  After 
calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  state  uniformity  of  textbooks 
was  "  becoming  more  and  more  questionable  every  day,  partic- 
ularly in  those  states  distinguished  for  efficient  school  systems 
and  educational  advancement,"  he  says: 

"...  For  us  to  adopt  a  state  series  would,  we  think,  be  supreme  folly, 
because  we  are  without  the  money  necessary  to  put  books  into  the  hands 
of  every  child  attending  school,  and  only  in  this  way  could  the  adoption 
of  a  state  series  be  secured.  It  is  estimated  that  it  would  cost  four 
dollars  to  provide  each  child  with  books,  and  with  a  total  school  at- 
tendance of  20,000  it  would  require  an  outlay  of  $80,000.  This  is  a 

60  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1871,  p.  6. 

61  See  page  50. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  71 

financial  impossibility,  and  even  were  it  possible,  the  wisdom  of  adopting 
a  uniform  series  would  not  be  apparent.  The  matter,  we  think,  should 
be  left  entirely  with  the  county  boards;  and  with  us  judicious  action  on 
the  part  of  these  boards  would  secure  uniformity  to  the  extent,  at  least, 
of  giving  a  oneness  of  character  to  the  textbooks  used  in  each  individual 
school,  or  the  schools  of  each  county." 

This  plan  of  leaving  it  to  each  board  of  public  instruction  to 
select  the  texts  for  its  own  county  was  the  one  favored  by  most 
of  the  people  of  the  State.  Hence,  the  state  boards  of  educa- 
tion, while  they  preferred  state  adoption  to  county  adoptions, 
did  not  attempt  to  force  the  adoption  of  a  common  series 
throughout  the  State.  Uniform  texts  were  recommended,  but 
the  control  of  this  matter  was  left  entirely  to  the  county  author- 
ities. The  textbooks  recommended  by  the  state  boards  were 
gradually  adopted  by  the  local  boards  of  education.  As  early 
as  1872,  Superintendent  Halliday,  of  Alachua  County,  speaking 
of  the  uniformity  of  textbooks,  said : 62 

"  We  have  made  considerable  progress  to  this  desirable  end  during  the 
.last  year.    The  books  adopted  by  the  state  superintendent  are  generally  in 
use  in  our  schools.  ..." 

The  following  year  Superintendent  Eagan,  of  Madison  County, 
in  a  letter  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  wrote :  63 

"  The  board  has  adopted  the  system  of  textbooks  recommended  by 
your  department,  and  is  making  considerable  progress  in  introducing  them 
into  the  different  schools.  ..." 

Also  in  1880  Superintendent  Henry  N.  Felkel,  of  Leon  County, 
reported :  '* 

"The  textbooks  used  in  the  schools  of  the  county  are  the  same  as 
adopted  by  the  former  board  of  public  instruction,  and  are  made  up 
partly  of  the  American  and  partly  of  the  National  Series.  ..." 

That  same  year  Superintendent  Grenshaw,  of  Volusia  County, 
stated : 65 

"  I  am  informed  that  there  is  much  more  uniformity  in  the  books 
in  use  in  the  schools,  and  am  gratified  to  find  a  willingness  on  the  part  of 
most  of  the  patrons  to  purchase  the  books  recommended  by  the  board." 

62  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1872,  p.  18. 

63  See  Annual  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1872-73,  p.  48. 

64  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  p.  44. 

p.  53- 


72  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

By  act  of  March  i,  i883,66  county  boards  of  public  in- 
struction that  had  not  provided  for  uniform  textbooks  in  their 
schools  were  required  to  meet  on  the  seventh  day  of  May  of 
that  year  and  adopt  a  series  of  textbooks  for  use  in  them  for 
at  least  five  years,  said  series  to  be  obligatory  on  the  trustees 
and  teachers  of  their  several  counties.  Another  act  of  the 
same  date  prohibited  dealing  in  school  books  on  the  part  of 
any  school  officer  or  teacher.67 

Thus  we  see  that  by  the  close  of  this  period  considerable  prog- 
ress had  been  made  in  the  way  of  securing  more  suitable  text- 
books. While  the  condition  of  things  was  still  far  from  satis- 
factory, this  obstacle  to  educational  advancement,  which  had  ex- 
isted throughout  the  period,  had,  at  least,  been  partially  overcome. 

The  Population. — A  further  obstacle  to  progress  in  the  public 
schools  was  the  scattered  population.  In  1870,  according  to  the 
United  States  census,  the  population  of  Florida  was  only  187,748, 
an  average  of  three  per  square  mile;  in  1880,  only  269,493,  an 
average  of  less  than  five  per  square  mile;  and  in  1884,  according 
to  the  state  census,  it  was  but  338,406,  an  average  of  less  than 
six  per  square  mile.  Moreover,  there  were  portions  of  the  State 
which  were  almost  completely  uninhabited.  Many  of  the  patrons 
lived  in  such  remote  and  sparsely  settled  places  that  it  was  prac- 
tically impossible  for  them  to  receive  any  benefits  from  the  com- 
mon schools.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  what  a  serious  obstacle  this 
sparsity  of  the  population  must  have  been  to  the  educational 
progress  of  the  State. 

The  Teaching  Staff. — Perhaps  the  greatest  barrier  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  common  schools  of  the  State,  excepting  the  lack  of 
adequate  funds,  was  the  insufficient  number  of  competent  and 
efficient  teachers.  To  be  sure,  there  were  a  few  excellent  teachers 
employed  by  the  several  county  authorities,  as  is  evidenced  by 
some  of  the  reports  of  the  state  and  county  superintendents ;  but 
the  great  majortiy  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  State,  especially 
during  the  first  half  of  the  period,  consisted  of  men  and  women 
who  had  no  professional  preparation  whatever  for  their  work, 
and  no  academic  preparation  beyond  the  elementary  branches, 
such  as  spelling,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  United  States  his- 

66  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1883,  Chap.  3446. 

67  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1883,  Chap.  3456. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  73 

tory,  English  grammar,  and  geography.  The  county  authorities 
were  oftentimes  simply  compelled  to  maintain  a  low  standard  of 
qualification  in  regard  to  the  teachers  or  else  let  the  schools  go 
untaught.  In  many  instances  persons  were  employed  who  pos- 
sessed absolutely  no  certificate  of  qualification.  "  Of  these," 
says  Superintendent  McLin,68  in  his  report  for  the  year  ending 
September  30,  1874,  "  three  out  of  every  four  are  unfit  for  the 
place  they  occupy,  in  respect  to  scholarship,  methods  and  prin- 
ciples of  teaching,  general  intelligence,  and  ability  to  organize 
and  govern  a  school." 

This  condition  was  due  largely  to  two  causes.  In  the  first 
place,  there  was  almost  no  provision  for  the  preparation  of 
teachers.  The  school  law  of  1869  authorized  and  directed  the 
state  board  of  education  to  make  such  provision,  but  nothing 
was  done  by  this  board.  Among  the  first  steps  taken  in  this 
direction  were  the  establishment  of  model  schools  in  various 
parts  of  the  State  and  the  offering  of  teacher-training  courses 
by  a  few  secondary  and  some  of  the  best  elementary  schools.69 
In  this  connection  Florida  was  greatly  assisted  by  the  Peabody 
Educational  Fund.70  From  1868  to  1884,  inclusive,  the  State 
received  $68,700  from  this  fund,71  a  large  part  of  which  was 
expended  in  the  training  of  teachers.  The  conditions  on  which 
this  aid  was  given  were  that  the  schools  should  have  an  enroll- 
ment of  one  hundred  pupils  each,  a  teacher  for  every  fifty,  an  av- 
erage attendance  of  not  less  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  number  en- 
rolled, and  that  they  maintain  a  ten  months'  term.72  The  schools 
which  complied  with  these  terms  in  1869,  and  received  their 
portion  of  the  munificence,  were:  The  Peabody  School  at 
St.  Augustine,  Duval  School  at  Jacksonville,  Lincoln  Academy 
at  Tallahassee,  The  Peabody  School  at  Lake  City,  and  the  schools 
at  Monticello,  Apalachicola,  Bartow,  Quincy,  Madison,  and  Mar- 
ianna.73  Other  schools  which  later  did  likewise  were:  Union 
Academy  at  Gainesville,  The  Sears  School  at  Key  West,  Pensa- 

68  See  page  45- 

69  There  is  no  record  as  to  the  content  of  these  courses. 

70  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  14;   1872,  p.  4;  I&73,  P-  7; 
1878-80,  pp.  15-16,  34;  1880-82,  pp.  17-18. 

71  See  Rep.  of  Com.  of  Ed.,  1884-85,  p.  LXXIX. 

72  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1880-82,  p.  18. 

73  See  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1870,  p.  14. 


74  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

cola  Academy  in  Pensacola,  Tampa  Institute  in  Tampa,  Howard 
Academy  in  Ocala,  Waukeenah  High  School  in  Waukeenah,  three 
other  schools  in  Jacksonville,  and  the  schools  in  Archer,  New- 
sansville,  and  Live  Oak. 

Prior  to  1880  there  were  no  other  schools  within  the  State, 
in  addition  to  the  ones  just  mentioned,  which  offered  courses 
to  those  planning  to  teach.  Beginning  with  1877,  however,  pro- 
vision was  made  whereby  a  few  could  receive  this  training  out- 
side of  the  State.74  Through  the  munificence  of  the  trustees 
of  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund,  three  two-year  scholarships 
in  the  normal  department  of  Nashville  University,  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  worth  two  hundred  dollars  each  per  annum,  were 
offered  to  the  white  teachers  of  Florida.  But  the  time  of  notice 
being  short,  only  two  persons  availed  themselves  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. Two  years  later  five  new  scholarships  were  granted, 
and  in  1880  the  number  was  increased  to  ten.75 

While  these  provisions  mentioned  in  the  two  paragraphs  above 
helped  considerably  in  improving  the  quality  of  the  teaching 
staff  of  the  State,  what  was  needed,  as  had  been  pointed  out 
by  many  of  the  county,  and  by  all  the  state,  superintendents, 
was  a  good  normal,  or  teacher-training  school.  On  this  point 
Superintendent  Haisley,  in  his  biennial  report  for  1876-78, 
writes : 76 

"...  An  institution  of  this  character  .  .  .  would  soon  give  to  many 
sections  well  qualified  and  accomplished  teachers,  and  at  the  same  time 
stimulate  effort  and  application  on  the  part  of  others  now  engaged 
in  this  work." 

But  no  teacher-training  schools  were  established  before  1880. 
That  year  the  East  Florida  Seminary,  in  accordance  with  the 
law  which  had  just  been  passed,  established  such  a  school.77  In 
1883  a  similar  school  was  established  in  the  West  Florida  Sem- 
inary. These  schools,  or  rather  departments,  were  open  to  any 
white  person  of  good  moral  character,  over  fifteen  years  of  age, 
properly  prepared,  and  intending  to  teach.  Tuition  in  them  was 
free  to  all  who  would  pledge  themselves  to  remain  in  the  de- 

74  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  18. 

75  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  p.  16. 

76  See  page  20. 

77  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  p.  56. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM  75 

partments  for  two  years,  and,  after  that  time,  to  teach  in  the 
schools  of  the  State  for  at  least  two  years.78  These  were  the 
only  teacher-training  schools  prior  to  the  administration  of  Su- 
perintendent Russell,  except  a  colored  normal  of  one  month's 
duration  that  was  conducted  in  Tallahassee  during  July,  1883. 70 
Another  cause  of  the  incompetencey  and  inefficiency  which 
prevailed  among  the  corps  of  teachers  of  the  State  was  the  lack 
of  provision  for  the  improvement  of  those  already  in  service. 
The  chief  attempt  along  this  line  was  the  holding  of  teachers' 
institutes.  But  while  the  importance  of  this  seems  to  have  been 
recognized  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  period,  nothing  was 
done  until  1879.  That  year  Superintendent  Haisley,  during  his 
second  official  tour  of  the  State,  organized  the  first  institute  for 
teachers.  He  tells  us80  that  one  of  the  reasons  for  canvassing 
the  State  was  to  organize  and  meet  with  the  teachers  in  institutes 
whenever  it  was  thought  practicable  to  accomplish  anything  in 
this  direction.  He  further  states  that  he  found  most  of  the 
superintendents  and  teachers  ready  to  enter  into  this  type  of 
work,  and  that  he  was  convinced  that  such  meetings  could  be 
made  a  success.  Though  it  was  possible  for  him  to  give  but 
a  small  part  of  his  time  to  this  work,  he  was  able  to  effect 
organizations  in  Duval,  Hernando,  Marion,  Nassau,  Orange, 
Santa  Rosa,  Suwannee,  Washington,  and  other  counties.  Most 
of  the  teachers  of  these  counties  were  enrolled.  The  meetings 
were  well  attended,  not  only  by  those  directly  connected  with  the 
schools,  but  by  others  as  well.  After  this  they  grew  rapidly 
in  favor.  The  legislature  of  1883,  in  making  appropriations  for 
educational  purposes,  appropriated  one  thousand  dollars  for  the 
holding  of  teachers'  institutes  for  that  and  the  succeeding  year.81 

78  The   number  enrolled   under  these   conditions  was   very   small,  the 
enrollment  for  the  scholastic  year  1883-84  being  but  twenty-five — fifteen 
in  the  West  and  ten  in  the  East  Florida  Seminary;  the  total  number  en- 
rolled that  year  in  the  normal  departments  was  only  forty-three — eighteen 
in  the  former  and  twenty-five  in  the  latter. 

79  This  school  and  the  normal  departments  in  the  two  seminaries,  to- 
gether with  four  institutes  each  for  whites  and  negroes,  were  supported  by 
a  legislative  appropriation  in   1883  of  $4,000  each  for  that  and  the  suc- 
ceeding year  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1883,  Chap.  3448). 

80  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1778-80,  p.  2. 

81  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1883,  Chap.  3447. 


76  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

The  state  superintendents  for  the  remainder  of  the  period,  Mr. 
Foster  and  Mr.  Russell,  took  up  this  important  work,  visiting 
annually  many  of  the  counties,  and  personally  organizing  and 
conducting  institutes  for  teachers.  By  the  close  of  the  period 
organizations  had  been  effected  in  most  of  the  counties. 

This  lack  of  worthy  and  well-qualified  teachers  in  Florida  may 
also  be  attributed  to  the  remote  and  sparsely  populated  school 
districts,  the  want  of  suitable  places  for  the  teachers  to  board, 
and  the  low  salaries  offered;  for  cultured,  well-trained,  and  ex- 
perienced teachers  who  are  willing  to  live  in  remote  and  out  of 
the  way  places,  without  any  of  the  advantages  of  cultivated  and 
refined  society,  and  who  are  contented  to  teach  in  unequipped 
and  dilapidated  school  buildings  at  a  very  small  remuneration, 
are  seldom  found;  and,  as  Superintendent  McLin  says  in  his 
report  for  the  year  ending  September  30,  i874,82  "  in  a  great 
majority  of  instances  such  has  necessarily  been  the  prospect  held 
out  by  county  boards  and  superintendents,  with  every  application 
for  competent  teachers."  We  can  readily  see,  therefore,  why  the 
county  authorities  were  oftentimes  forced  to  employ,  as  teachers, 
those  without  suitable  training  and  experience. 

Evidences  of  Educational  Progress. — But,  while  there  were 
many  serious  obstacles  to  universal  education  in  the  State,  the 
movement  for  public  education  had  made  considerable  progress 
by  the  close  of  the  period.  The  schools  had  grown  in  public 
favor;  the  school  expenditures  had  almost  quadrupled;  the  ad- 
ministrative organization  had  become  much  more  efficient;  the 
number  of  schools  operated  had  increased  seven-fold;  the  con- 
dition of  many  of  the  school  plants  had  greatly  improved;  the 
courses  of  instruction  in  quite  a  number  of  the  schools  were 
much  broader ;  the  textbooks  used  were  more  suitable ;  provisions 
were  being  made  for  the  preparation  and  training  of  those  plan- 
ning to  teach;  and  more  competent  and  efficient  teachers  were 
employed.  Other  evidences  of  this  progress  were  the  increase 
in  the  enrollment  of  the  school  population,  in  the  average  daily 
attendance,  in  the  length  of  the  school  term,  and  in  the  salaries 
paid  the  teachers.  These  evidences  are  seen  in  the  following  table. 

All  these  indications  of  educational  progress  which  we  have 
mentioned  were  destined  to  be  even  more  marked  in  the  succeed- 

82  See  page  45. 


WORK  OF  THE  SYSTEM 


77 


TABLE   VI [ 

STATISTICS  CONCERNING  SCHOOL  POPULATION,  NUMBER  ENROLLED,  AVERAGE 
DAILY  ATTENDANCE,  LENGTH  OF  SCHOOL  TERM  AND  SAL- 
ARY  PAID  THE   TEACHERS    ( 1869-1884) 83 


Average 

Average 

School 

School 

Average 

length 

monthly 

Years 

population 

enrollment 

daily 

of  school 

salary 

attendance 

term 

of  the 

in  days 

teachers 

1869-70 

41,900° 

7,500* 

4,957 

$30.00 

1870—71 

62  869° 

14  GOO** 

1871—72 

16  258 

l87°—  7"? 

10  1  06 

IS?"?—  7d 

20  91  1^ 

l874—7^ 

10  4.T.Q* 

1875-76 

26,052° 

16,720' 

1876-77 

72,985" 

3LI33* 

2I,782d 

80.0 

26.36 

1877—78 

-»6  061* 

21,0-17* 

77.  er 

1878-79 

37«°34J 

25,6OI' 

82.5 

1879-80 

71,782* 

39.3I57' 

27,046* 

76.O 

1880-81 

74.213* 

30,548m 

I9,729W 

72.0 

33-40 

1881-82 

51,945** 

24,923™ 

81.0 

1882-83 

n 

32,586° 

1883-84 

82,863P 

SS.SII*" 

35.881* 

82.0 



0  No  report  from  eleven  counties. 
6  Estimated  from  partial  data. 

c  Number  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty-one  years,  according 
to  the  United  States  census  for  1870. 
d  No  report  from  three  counties. 

*  No  report  from  fifteen  counties. 
'No  report  from  fourteen  counties. 

a  Number  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years,  according  to 
the  state  census  for  1876. 

h  No  report  from  two  counties. 

*  No  report  from  four  counties. 
3  No  report  from  one  county. 

*  Number  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years,  according 
to  the  state  census  for  1880. 

1  Number  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years. 
m  No  report  from  twelve  counties. 

n  No  data.  Estimated  at  51,749  by  Superintendent  Sheats  (see  Bien.  Rep.  of 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  63). 

0  No  report  trom  thirteen  counties. 

P  Number  of  youth  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty-one  years,  according 
to  the  state  census  for  1884. 

83  The  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  various  reports 
of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 


78  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

ing  period,   1884-92.    These   we   shall  notice   in  the    following 
chapter. 

SUMMARY 

In  1868  the  educational  affairs  of  Florida  were  in  a  very  poor 
condition.  There  were  but  few  competent  and  efficient  teachers, 
no  suitable  textbooks,  almost  a  total  lack  of  administrative  or- 
ganization and  material  equipment,  a  want  of  financial  support, 
and  no  suitable  organic  school  law. 

But  during  the  administration  of  Superintendent  Chase,  the 
first  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  considerable  prog- 
ress was  made.  A  good  school  law  was  enacted ;  administrative 
organizations  were  effected  in  all  the  counties  but  one;  the  num- 
ber of  schools  was  increased  from  two  hundred  fifty  to  three 
hundred  thirty-one;  the  enrollment  was  nearly  doubled;  and 
the  sentiment  in  favor  of  public  education  was  greatly  increased. 

Throughout  the  period  there  were  many  hindrances  to  ed- 
ucational progress.  The  principal  ones  were:  insufficient  funds, 
the  lack  of  efficient  organization  and  administration,  the  want 
of  suitable  school  plants,  no  well-defined  curricula,  the  lack  of 
proper  textbooks,  the  scattered  population,  and  the  small  num- 
ber of  trained  and  experienced  teachers. 

However,  by  the  close  of  the  period  the  movement  for  common 
schools  had  made  no  little  progress.  All  the  educational  hindrances 
mentioned  above  had  been  partially  overcome,  and  Florida  was 
beginning  to  realize  her  ideal  of  universal  education. 


CHAPTER    V 
PROGRESS  OF  THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM  (1884-1892) 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  notice  the  progress  that  was  made 
in  the  public-school  system  of  the  State  from  1884  to  1892, 
inclusive.  The  chief  changes,  as  we  shall  see,  were  those  effected 
by  the  constitution  of  1885  and  the  school  law  of  1889.  Let 
us  first  examine  the  educational  provisions  of  the  constitution. 

I.  CONSTITUTION  OF  1885 

Pursuant  to  the  act  of  the  legislature  of  the  state  of  Florida, 
approved  February  12,  1885,  entitled  "  An  act  calling  a  con- 
stitutional convention  and  providing  for  electing  delegates  to  the 
same,"  a  convention  met  at  Tallahassee  from  June  9  to  August  3, 

1885,  and  framed  a  new  constitution,  which  was  ratified  by  popu- 
lar vote  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November, 

1886,  and  went  into  effect  January  I,  I887.1 

Article  on  Education. — As  will  be  seen,  the  article  on  education 
in  this  constitution  is  more  detailed  than  the  one  of  1868.  It 
contains  the  following  provisions,  to-wit : 2 

"  Section  I.  The  legislature  shall  provide  for  a  uniform  system  of 
public  free  schools,  and  shall  provide  for  the  liberal  maintenance  of  the 
same. 

"  Section  2.  There  shall  be  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
whose  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  law,  and  whose  term  of  office  shall  be 
four  years  and  until  the  election  and  qualification  of  his  successor. 

"  Section  3.  The  governor,  secretary  of  state,  attorney  general,  state 
treasurer,  and  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  constitute 
a  body  corporate,  to  be  known  as  the  state  board  of  education  of  Florida, 
of  which  the  governor  shall  be  president,  and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  secretary.  This  board  shall  have  power  to  remove  any  sub- 
ordinate school  officer  for  cause,  upon  notice  to  the  incumbent;  and  shall 
have  the  management  and  investment  of  the  state  school-funds  under 
such  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law,  and  such  supervision  of 
schools  of  higher  grades  as  the  law  shall  provide. 

1  For  this  constitution  see  Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  the  State  of  Florida,   1885. 

2  See  Article  XII. 

79 


80  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

"  Section  4.  The  state  school-fund,  the  interest  of  which  shall  be  ex- 
clusively applied  to  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  free  schools, 
?hall  be  derived  from  the  following  sources : 

"  The  proceeds  of  all  lands  that  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be 
granted  to  the  State  by  the  United  States  for  public-school  purposes. 

"  Donations  to  the  State  when  the  purpose  is  not  specified. 

"  Appropriations  by  the  State. 

"  The  proceeds  of  escheated  property  or  forfeitures. 

"  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  which  are  now 
or  may  hereafter  be  owned  by  the  State. 

"  Section  5.  The  principal  of  the  state  school-fund  shall  remain  sacred 
and  inviolate. 

"  Section  6.  A  special  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable 
property  of  the  State,  in  addition  to  the  other  means  provided,  shall  be 
levied  and  apportioned  annually  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of 
public  free  schools. 

"  Section  7.  Provision  shall  be  made  by  law  for  the  distribution  of 
the  interest  of  the  state  school-fund  and  the  special  tax  among  the  sev- 
eral counties  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  residing 
therein  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years.3 

"  Section  8.  Each  county  shall  be  required  to  assess  and  collect 
annually  for  the  support  of  public  free  schools  therein,  a  tax  of  not  less 
than  three  mills  nor  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable 
property  in  the  same.* 

"  Section  9.  The  county  school-fund  shall  consist,  in  addition  to  the 
tax  provided  for  in  section  eight  of  this  article,  of  the  proportion  of  the 
interest  of  the  state  school-fund  and  of  the  one  mill  state  tax  apportioned 
to  the  county;  the  net  proceeds  of  all  fines  collected  under  the  penal 
laws  of  the  State  within  the  county ;  5  and  all  capitation  taxes  collected 
within  the  county;  and  shall  be  disbursed  by  the  county  board  of  public 
instruction  solely  for  the  maintenance  and  support  of  public  free  schools. 

3  This  section  was  amended  in  1894  to  read  as  follows :  "  Provision 
shall  be  made  by  law  for  the  apportionment  and  distribution  of  the  in- 
terest of  the  state  school-fund  and  all  other  means  provided,  including  the 
special  tax,  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  free  schools,  among 
the  several  counties  of  the  State  in  proportion  to  the  average  attendance 
upon  schools  in  the  said  counties  respectively." 

*An  amendment  to  this  section  fixing  the  maximal  rate  of  millage  at 
seven  instead  of  five  mills  was  proposed  by  the  legislature  in  1903,  and 
ratified  by  the  people  in  1904.  Another  amendment  fixing  the  maximal 
rate  at  ten  instead  of  seven  mills  was  proposed  in  May,  1917,  and  adopted 
in  November,  1918. 

5  Since  1894  all  fines  and  forfeitures  collected  in  each  county  have  been 
given,  by  implication  of  Article  XVI,  section  9,  as  amended  that  year,  to 
the  general  county  fund  rather  than  to  the  county  school-fund. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  gl 

"  Section  10.  The  legislature  may  provide  for  the  division  of  any 
county  or  counties  into  convenient  school  districts;  and  for  the  election 
biennially  of  three  school  trustees,  who  shall  hold  their  office  for  two 
years,  and  who  shall  have  the  supervision  of  all  the  schools  within  the 
district;  and  for  the  levying  and  collecting  of  a  district  school  tax,  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  public  free  schools  within  the  district,  whenever  a 
majority  of  the  qualified  electors  thereof  that  pay  a  tax  on  real  or  per- 
sonal property  shall  vote  in  favor  of  such  levy;  Provided,  That  any  tax 
authorized  by  this  section  shall  not  exceed  three  mills  on  the  dollar  in 
any  one  year  on  the  taxable  property  of  the  district. 

"Section  n.  Any  incorporated  town  or  city  may  constitute  a  school 
district.  The  fund  raised  by  section  ten  may  be  expended  in  the  district 
where  levied  for  building  or  repairing  school  houses,  for  the  purchase 
of  school  libraries  and  textbooks,  for  salaries  of  teachers,  or  for  other 
educational  purposes,  so  that  the  distribution  among  all  the  schools  of  the 
district  be  equitable. 

"  Section  12.  White  and  colored  children  shall  not  be  taught  in  the 
same  school,  but  impartial  provision  shall  be  made  for  both. 

"  Section  13.    No  law  shall  be  enacted  authorizing  the  diversion  or  the 
lending  of  any  county  or  district  school-funds,  or  the  appropriation  of 
any  part  of  the  permanent  or  available  school-fund  to  any  other  than     , 
school  purposes;  nor  shall  the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  be  appropriated 
to  or  used  for  the  support  of  any  sectarian  school. 

"  Section  14.  The  legislature  at  its  first  sesion  shall  provide  for  the 
establishment,  maintenance,  and  management  of  such  normal  schools,  not 
to  exceed  two,  as  the  interests  of  public  education  may  demand. 

"  Section  15.  The  compensation  of  all  county  school  officers  shall  be 
paid  from  the  school  fund  of  their  respective  counties,  and  all  other 
county  officers  receiving  stated  salaries  shall  be  paid  from  the  general 
funds  of  their  respective  counties." 

Changes  Made  in  the  Educational  System. — As  is  evident, 
there  were  several  important  changes  effected  in  the  public-school 
system.  The  principal  changes  from  the  constitution  of  1868 
are  those  pertaining  to  the  support  of  the  schools.  The  matter 
of  providing  for  this  support  was  no  longer  left,  as  it  was  in 
the  earlier  instrument,  to  the  caprice  of  succeeding  legislators. 
The  new  constitution  stated  definitely  what  funds  should  be  set 
apart  for  a  permanent  state  school-fund;  it  provided  for  a  def- 
inite state  tax,  and  for  the  distribution  of  this  tax,  together 
with  the  interest  of  the  state  school-fund,  among  the  different 
counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  youth  residing  therein 
between  the  ages  of  six8  and  twenty-one  years ;  it  fixed  a  minimum 

6  According  to  the  constitution  of  1868  (Art.  IX,  Sec.  7),  this  dis- 
tribution was  to  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children  between 
the  ages  of  four  and  twenty-one  years. 


82  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

and  maximum  rate  for  an  annual  school  tax  in  each  county  at 
three  and  five  mills,  respectively ; 7  it  provided  that  the  fines 
and  the  per  capita  tax  collected  in  each  county,  in  addition  to 
the  county  school-tax  and  the  county's  proportion  of  the  interest 
of  the  state  school-fund  and  of  the  one-mill  state-tax,  should 
constitute  a  part  of  the  county  school-fund,8  to  be  expended  by 
the  county  board  of  public  instruction  "  solely  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  support  of  public  free  schools  " ;  and  it  further  pro- 
vided for  a  district  school-tax  of  not  more  than  three  mills  on 
the  dollar,  whenever  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors  of  any 
district  who  paid  a  tax  on  real  or  personal  property  should  vote 
in  favor  of  such  levy.9 

Other  changes  in  the  school  system  were  as  follows :  ( I )  The 
new  constitution  provided  for  a  state  board  of  education,  con- 
sisting, as  it  still  does,  of  the  governor,  secretary  of  state,  at- 
torney general,  state  treasurer,  and  state  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  of  which  the  governor  was  to  be  president,  and 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  secretary.10  (2)  It  spec- 
ified some  of  the  powers  of  this  board.11  (3)  It  provided  for 
"the  division  of  any  county  or  counties  into  convenient  school 
districts " ;  (4)  for  a  district  school-board  of  three  members, 
who  were  to  be  elected  by  the  people,  hold  their  office  for  two 
years,  and  "  have  the  supervision  of  all  the  schools  within  the 
district";11  and  (5)  that  cities  and  incorporated  towns  might 
constitute  school  districts.11  (6)  The  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  was  to  be  elected  quadrennially  by  the  qualified 
voters  of  the  State,  at  the  same  time  as  the  other  officers  of  the 
executive  department  of  the  State,  the  first  election  to  be  held 
in  November,  i888;12  and  (7)  the  county  superintendents  of 

7  The   constitution  of   1868    (Art.   IX,   Sec.  8)    simply   required   each 
county  to  raise  annually,  by  taxation,  a  sum  equal  to  at  least  one-half 
the  amount  apportioned  to  it  for  that  year  from  the  income  of  the  com- 
mon-school   fund. 

8  Under  the  constitution  of  1868  (Art.  IX,  Sec.  4)   the  fines  and  the 
per  capita  tax  formed  a  part  of  the  state  school-fund. 

9  No  provision  was  made  in  the  constitution  of  1868  for  such  tax. 

10  Under  the  constitution  of  1868  (Art.  IX,  Sec.  9)  the  state  board  of 
education  consisted  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  attorney  general,  and  had  for  its  president  the  state  su- 
perintendent. 

11  There  was  no  such  provision  in  the  earlier  instrument. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  83 

public  instruction  were  to  be  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years 
by  the  qualified  electors  of  their  respective  counties.13  (8)  It 
required  that  an  "  impartial  provision  "  should  be  made  for  the 
education  of  the  white  and  colored  children.  (9)  It  formally 
guarded  against  coeducation  of  the  races  by  the  requirement 
of  separate  schools  for  the  colored  children.  (10)  It  required 
that  no  part  of  any  county  or  district  school-funds  should  be 
used  otherwise  than  for  school  purposes;  and  (n)  that  no 
public-school  money  should  go  for  sectarian  schools.  (12)  It 
made  it  mandatory  upon  the  succeeding  legislature  to  provide 
for  two  normal  schools.  (13)  And  finally,  it  required  that  all 
county  school  officers  should  be  paid  out  of  the  school  fund 
of  their  respective  counties. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  changes  need  no  comment.  However,  it 
is  interesting  to  note  the  ones  relating  to  the  selection  of  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  selection  of  the  county 
superintendents,  the  support  of  the  common  schools,  the  number 
of  members  constituting  a  local,  or  district,  school-board,  and 
the  provision  for  higher  education.  Practically  all  of  these,  as 
you  will  notice,  are  indicative  of  progress.  But  they  were  not 
universally  regarded  as  such.  For  example,  the  sections  relating 
to  local  taxation  met  with  determined  and  persistent  opposition, 
not  only  on  the  part  of  several  members  of  the  convention,  but 
also  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  the 
State.  Among  the  editors  the  most  bitter  opponent,  perhaps, 
was  Hon.  John  Temple  Graves,  editor  of  the  Daily  Herald  of 
Jacksonville.  In  one  of  his  long  editorials  he  stated  that  the 
"  school  crank ''  of  the  convention14  was  endeavoring  "  to  con- 
fiscate the  property  of  the  State  to  educate  negroes  with,"  and 
that  such  large  school  funds  were  entirely  unnecessary  for  the 
education  of  the  youth  of  the  State.15  Among  the  delegates  to 

12  Article  IV,  section  20.    Under  the  constitution  of  1868  (Article  V, 
section  17)   the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  appointed 
by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the  senate. 

13  Article  VIII,  section  6.    Under  the  constitution  of  1868  (Article  V, 
section    19)    county   superintendents    of    schools   were    appointed    by   the 
governor  for  a  term  of  two  years. 

14  He  was  doubtless  referring  to  Hon.  W.   N.   Sheats,  then  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  Alachna  County,  who  was  the  author  of  all  but  one 
of  the  constitutional  provisions  on  education. 

15  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  43-45- 


84  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

the  convention  there  were  quite  a  number  who  also  thought 
that  there  was  no  need  of  so  much  money  for  educational  pur- 
poses. With  regard  to  the  section  providing  for  an  annual 
county  school-tax,  some  held  that  the  minimal  rate  should  be 
fixed  at  two  mills  instead  of  three;  some  advocated  a  minimal 
and  maximal  rate  of  one  mill  and  three  mills,  instead  of  three 
and  five,  respectively;  some  wanted  to  simply  specify  the  max- 
imal rate,  putting  that  at  four  mills  instead  of  five ;  and  some, 
while  favoring  the  limits  proposed  by  the  committee  on  educa- 
tion, three  to  five  mills,  thought  that  no  county  school-tax  should 
be  imposed  upon  a  people  unless  a  majority  wanted  it.  After 
several  amendments  had  been  offered,  the  section  was  adopted, 
as  originally  drafted,  though  with  a  small  majority.  But  with 
regard  to  the  section  providing  for  a  district  school-tax,  there 
was  even  greater  opposition  in  the  convention.  However,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  former  provision,  the  convention,  following  an 
imperative  demand  from  the  people,  wrote  this  one  also  into 
the  constitution  of  the  State.16 

Such  were  the  educational  provisions  of  the  constitution  of 
1885,  which,  as  already  stated,  passed  into  force  January  i,  1887. 
The  influence  of  these  provisions  upon  the  growth  of  the  schools 
and  all  school  interests  will  be  seen  later.  We  shall  now  notice 
some  of  the  provisions  of  the  new  school  law. 

II.  SCHOOL  LAW  OF  1889 

This  "new  law,"  as  it  was  aftewards  called,  was  framed 
by  Hon.  Albert  J.  Russell,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion.17 It  differed  in  several  respects  from  previous  educational 
acts,  the  chief  differences  being  those  regarding  the  administra- 
tive organization  and  financial  support  of  the  public-school  sys- 
tem. In  the  first  place,  the  administrative  organization  of  the 
school  system  was  changed  in  many  particulars,  being  made  less 
cumbersome,  much  simpler,  more  efficient,  and  less  expensive; 
and,  in  the  next  place,  the  system  was  put  on  a  better  finan- 
cial basis. 

16  For  the  attitude  of  the  members  of  the  convention  in  regard  to  the 
educational  provisions  of  the  constitution  see  Journal  of  the  Proceedings. 

17  It  was  entitled  "  An  act  to  establish  a  uniform  system  of  common 
schools   and  county   high   schools."     Approved   June   8,    1889.     For   this 
act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Chap.  3872,  pp.  73-84. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  85 

Changes  in  Administrative  Organization. — The  officers  of  the 
school  system  were  a  state  board  of  education,  a  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  a  board  of  education  and  a 
superintendent  of  schools  for  each  county,  local  school  super- 
visors and  treasurers.  The  state  board  of  education  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  system,  forming  a  kind  of  general  council  on 
educational  matters,  with  specified  powers  and  duties.  It  was 
composed  of  the  following  state  officials:  the  governor,  who 
was  its  president;  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  was  its  secretary ;  the  state  treasurer,  who  was  its  treasurer ; 
the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  attorney  general.18  The  state 
superintendent  was  the  principal  administrative  officer  of  the 
system,  having  general  supervision  of  all  matters  pertaining 
thereto.  The  county  boards  of  education  administered  the  pub- 
lic-school affairs  of  their  respective  counties.  A  county  board 
consisted  of  not  more  than  three  members,19  no  two  of  whom 
could  reside  in  the  same  commissioner's  district,20  and  all  of 
whom  were  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education,  after 
being  nominated  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion.21 The  powers  and  duties  of  this  body  were  much  the  same 
as  before,  the  principal  differences  being  that  it  was  charged 
with  sole  authority  to  employ  and  assign  teachers;  was  still  to 
establish  and  maintain  schools  in  the  county,  but  such  schools 
were  not  to  be  located  nearer  than  three  miles  to  each  other, 
unless  for  some  local  reason  or  necessity ;  was  directed  "  to 
prescribe,  in  consultation  with  prominent  teachers,  a  course  of 
study  for  the  schools  of  the  county  " ;  and  was  empowered  to 
locate  and  maintain  one  or  more  county  high  schools.  The 
county  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was  the  chief  ed- 
ucational officer  of  the  various  counties,  his  powers  and  duties 
being  practically  the  same  as  under  the  old  law.  The  local 

18  Under  the  old  school  law  the  state  board  of  education  was  composed 
of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  secretary  of  state,  and 
attorney  general. 

19  Prior  to  this  the  limit  was  five  instead  of  three. 

20  There  was  no  provision  in  any  previous  educational  act  as  to  the 
residence  of  the  members. 

21  Prior  to  this  "  the  recommendation  of  the  representatives  from  the 
county"   was   required  in  addition   to   "the   nomination   of  the   superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction." 


86  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

school  supervisors  were  the  legal  successors  of  the  old  local 
school  trustees.  There  was  one  for  each  school,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  county  board  of  education  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  patrons.22  His  duties  were  mainly  supervisory 
in  character.  He  was  directed  to  superintend  the  construction, 
rental,  and  equipment  of  the  school  plant ;  to  oversee  the 
making  of  repairs  and  improvements;  to  take  the  census  of 
the  school  population;  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  school; 
to  procure  for  the  teacher  a  copy  of  the  school  laws  and 
the  regulations  and  decisions  of  the  state  department  of  pub- 
lic instruction;  to  assist  the  teacher  in  matters  of  discipline; 
and  to  make  reports  to  the  county  superintendent  of  schools  and 
the  county  board  of  education.  And  finally,  there  were  the 
treasurers  of  the  different  county  school-funds.  But  in  this 
respect  we  find  no  change  from  the  law  already  existing,  for 
the  county  treasurers  of  the  several  counties  of  the  State  were 
the  custodians  of  the  school  funds  of  their  respective  counties, 
and  this  had  been  the  case  since  i877.23 

Another  change  respecting  the  administrative  organization  of 
the  public-school  system  was  the  the  provision  for  the  establish- 
ment of  special  school-districts,  known  as  "  subdistricts."  The  law 
provided  that,  upon  the  petition  of  one-fourth  of  the  tax-paying 
voters  in  any  election  district,  or  incorporated  town  or  city,  the 
county  board  of  education  could,  if  it  saw  fit,  hold  an  election 
to  determine  whether  such  election  district,  town,  or  city  should 
be  made  a  special  school-district.24  Whenever  such  a  district 
was  created,25  three  school  trustees  were  elected  therein  at  a 
time  fixed  by  the  county  board  of  education,  and  every  two  years 
thereafter.  These  trustees  constituted  a  corporate  body,  with 
the  usual  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  performing  their  duties, 
which  were  both  financial  and  supervisory  in  character.  Acting 
under  the  direction  of  the  county  board,  they  supervised  the 

22  The  old  local  school-boards  consisted  of  not  more  than  five  members, 
all  of  whom  were  appointed  by  the  county  board  of  education,  after  being 
nominated  by  the  county  superintendent  of  schools,  and  recommended  by 
the  patrons. 

23  See  Laws  of  Florida!  1877,  Chap.  2085,  p.  22. 

24  Such  an  election  could  not  be  held  oftener  than  once  in  every  two 
years. 

25  This  required  a  majority  of  the  tax-paying  voters. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  87 

work  of  each  school  in  their  district,  and  reported  to  the 
board  at  its  regular  monthly  meetings;  they  were  also  directed 
and  empowered  to  receive  and  hold  the  school  fund  of  their 
district. 

Changes  in  School  Support. — As  to  the  means  of  support  for 
the  public-school  system,  there  were  also  important  changes,  the 
most  important  of  which  were  the  provisions  for  local  taxation. 
The  law  provided  that  each  county  board  of  education  should, 
on  or  before  the  last  Monday  in  June  of  each  year,  make  out 
and  lay  before  the  county  assessor  of  taxes  an  itemized  estimate 
of  expenditures  to  be  incurred  for  educational  purposes  during 
the  next  ensuing  scholastic  year,  the  amount  of  money  required 
being  stated  in  so  many  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  prop- 
erty in  the  county,  which  millage  had  to  be  not  less  than  three 
nor  more  than  five;  that  the  county  assessor  should  assess  the 
amount  so  stated;  and  that  the  collector  should  collect  the 
amount  assessed  and  turn  it  over  monthly  to  the  county  treasurer, 
who  was  also  by  law  the  treasurer  of  the  county  school-funds. 
It  further  provided  that,  upon  the  application  of  one-fourth  of 
the  tax-paying  voters  in  any  special  school-district,  the  county  * 
board  of  education  could,  if  it  thought  best,  cause  an  election 
to  be  held,  to  determine  whether  a  district  school-tax,  the  rate 
of  which  had  to  be  specified  in  the  application  and  notice  of 
election,  should  be  assessed  and  collected  on  all  taxable  property 
of  the  district;26  and  that  in  case  such  a  tax  was  ordered27  it 
should  be  levied  and  collected  in  the  same  manner  as  other  taxes, 
but  the  money  collected  was  to  be  kept  separate  and  paid  over 
to  the  school  trustees,  who  were  the  custodians  of  the  district 
school-funds. 

Result  of  the  Changes. — Such  were  the  principal  changes 
made  in  the  general  school  law  of  1889,  which  went  into  oper- 
ation after  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  1889-90.  The  in- 
trenchment  of  the  above-mentioned  educational  provisions  in  the 
organic  school  law  of  the  State,  thereby  insuring  better  admin- 
istration and  greater  school  revenues,  was  followed  by  an  in- 

26  Such  an  election  could  not  be  held  earlier  than  January  the  first 
nor  later  than  April  the  first  of  any  year;  nor  could  it  be  held  oftener 
than  once  in  every  two  years. 

2TThis  required  a  majority  of  the  tax-paying  voters. 


88  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

creased  growth  of  the  schools  and  of  all  educational  interests 
in  the  State.  The  actual  result  of  these  provisions  will  be 
seen  in  the  remainder  of  this,  and  the  following,  chapter.  We 
shall  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  progress  of  the  schools 
during  this  period. 

III.  PROGRESS  OF  THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

Hon.  Albert  J.  Russell,  who  had  served  as  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  since  February  21,  1884,  was  reappointed28 
in  1885,  and  elected  by  the  people  in  November,  i888,29 
thus  serving  continuously  from  the  twenty-first  of  February, 
1884,  until  the  third  of  January,  1893,  a  term  of  nearly  nine 
years.  During  this  long  administration  considerable  progress 
was  made  in  the  public-school  system,  as  is  evidenced  (i)  by  the 
willingness  of  the  people  to  support  it  by  taxation,  (2)  by  a 
more  efficient  administrative  organization,  (3)  by  better  and 
more  adequate  school  facilities,  (4)  by  broader  courses  of  study, 
(5)  by  a  more  competent  teaching  staff,  (6)  by  a  more  exten- 
sive system  of  public  instruction,  and  (7)  by  the  increased 
*  school  attendance.  Let  us  notice  these  evidences  of  educational 
advancement  somewhat  in  detail. 

Financial  Support  of  the  School  System. — The  chief  indication 
of  growth  and  advancement  in  the  system  of  public  instruction 
was  the  persistent  and  unabated  growth  of  interest  which  the 
people  throughout  the  State  manifested  in  the  work  of  the 
schools.  Never  before  had  there  been  such  a  manifestation  of 
public  interest  in  school  affairs.  Old  prejudices  were  gradually 
allayed;  the  schools  began  to  have  a  new  significance;  and  the 
public  conscience  was  quickened  into  a  broader  conception  of 
duty  in  respect  to  the  education  of  all  the  youth.  The  people 
everywhere,  even  those  who  had  stood  aloof  from  the  public 
schools,  became  more  and  more  appreciative  of  their  possibilities 

28  Under  the  constitution  of   1868  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  was  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the  sen- 
ate.   Mr.  Russell  was  first  appointed  by  Governor  William  D.  Bloxham; 
he  was  reappointed  by  Governor  Edward  A.  Perry. 

29  Under  the  constitution  of   1885  the   state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  was  to  be  chosen  by  popular  vote,  beginning  with  the  general 
election  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  1888, 
and  thereafter  on  the  corresponding  day  of  every  fourth  year. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM 


89 


TABLE   VIII 

PROGRESS  OF  STATE  SCHOOL-FUND  AND  EXPENDITURES  FOR  PUBLIC-SCHOOL 
PURPOSES    (1884-1892)3° 


Total 

Amount  expended  per  capita  of 

Invested 

amount 

Years 

school 

expended 

fund 

for 

Total 

School 

Ave.  daily 

schools 

population 

population 

attendance 

1884-85 

$490,784 

$335.984 

$0.99° 

$4.05° 

$8.00 

1885-86 

522,284 

309,890* 

.  .  . 

1886-87 



449,299 

.  .  . 

1887-88 

546,984 

484,110 

i-34e 

4.26d 

9.11 

1888-89 

555.684 

476,490 

I.28C 

4-i9d 

8-43c 

1889-90 

569,684 

516,532 

.  .  . 

1890-91 

595.484 

564.304 

1.44* 

4.46" 

9-25c 

1891-92 

595.984 

537.235' 

i-34a 

4.01* 

8.63* 

a  Based  on  the  state  school-census  of  1884. 

6  No  report  from  two  counties. 

c  Approximately. 

d  Based  on  the  state  school-census  of  1888. 

'  Based  on  the  United  States  census  of  1890. 

f  The  amount  received  for  public-school  purposes,  according  to  State  Superin- 
tendent Russell,  was  $638,710.07 — $6,063.53  from  fines,  etc.;  $34,542.23  from  the 
state  school-fund;  $53,496.00  from  the  poll  tax;  $85,235.25  from  the  state  one- 
mill  tax;  and  $459,373.06  from  county  taxes.  However,  Superintendent  Sheats 
says  that  the  amount  received  was  $579,150.54  (see  Bien.  Rep.  Supt.  Pub.  Ins., 
1892-94,  pp.  66-67). 

0  Approximate  expenditure. 

According  to  the  figures  given  by  Superintendent  Russell,  the  school  revenue 
per  capita  of  total  population  was  $1.58;  according  to  the  figures  given  by  Superin- 
tendent Sheats,  $1.44. 

h  Approximate  expenditure. 

According  to  the  figures  given  by  Russell,  the  school  revenue  per  capita  of 
school  population  was  $4.75;  according  to  the  figures  given  by  Sheats,  $4.32. 

*  Approximate  expenditure. 

According  to  the  figures  given  by  Russell,  the  school  revenue  per  capita  of 
average  daily  attendance  was  $10.25;  according  to  the  figures  given  by  Sheats, 
$9-37- 

30  The  figures  given  here  in  regard  to  the  state  school-fund  and  the 
total  expenditures  for  public-school  purposes  have  been  taken  from  the 
various  reports  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  state 
treasurer,  and  the  United  States  commissioner  of  education.  Those 
concerning  the  expenditures  per  capita  of  total  population,  school  popu- 
lation, and  average  daily  attendance  have  been  obtained  by  dividing  the 


90  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

and  increasingly  loyal  to  them.  The  surest  sign  of  their  con- 
tinued and  increasing  loyalty  and  appreciation  was  the  constant 
and  steady  increase  in  the  amount  of  money  expended  annually 
for  public-school  support.  This  is  shown  by  the  table  on  the 
foregoing  page. 

As  is  Shown  in  Table  VIII,  there  were  but  two  scholastic  years 
from  1884  to  1892,  1888-89  and  1891-92,  in  which  the  public- 
school  expenditure  did  not  exceed  that  of  the  year  just  preceding. 
It  also  shows  that  during  this  period  the  annual  expenditure 
for  public-school  purposes  had  nearly  doubled.  Of  course,  this 
increase  was  due  partly  to  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  people, 
for  during  this  time  the  assessed  value  of  the  property  of  the 
State  had  increased  from  $60,042,655  to  $98,568,oi4.31  However, 
as  the  table  shows,  it  was  due  principally  to  the  growth  of  public 
sentiment  in  favor  of  universal  education,  for  the  annual  ex- 
penditure for  public  schools  had  increased  some  faster  than  the 
school  population  and  the  average  daily  attendance,  and  much 
faster  than  the  total  population  and  the  wealth  of  the  State. 
But  the  sentiment  of  the  people  with  reference  to  public  ed- 
ucation is  made  still  more  evident  if  we  examine  how  they  taxed 
themselves  for  the  support  of  the  schools.  This  is  shown  in 
the  table  on  the  next  page.  As  will  be  seen  in  this  table,  there 
had  been,  during  the  period  1884-92,  such  a  growth  of  public 
interest  in  common  schools  that  the  number  of  counties  willing 
to  tax  themselves  up  to  the  maximum  limit  of  five  mills  had 
increased  from  five  in  1886-87  to  seventeen  in  1891-92;  the 
number  contented  with  the  minimum  of  three  mills  had  decreased 
from  fifteen  to  seven;  and  the  number  levying  less  than  the 
requirement  had  decreased  from  six  to  nothing.  Thus  is  spoken 
in  unmistakable  terms  the  growth  of  public  interest  in  the  work 
of  the  common  schools;  and  this,  we  repeat,  constitutes,  per- 
haps, the  chief  evidence  of  growth  and  advancement  in  the  pub- 
lic-school system  of  the  State. 

Educational  Organisation  and  Administration. — Another  in- 
dication of  growth  and  advancement  in  the  public-school  system 

total  amount  expended  by  the  total  population,  school  population,  and 
average  daily  attendance,  respectively,  which  are  given  in  Table  XII,  on 
page  1 08. 

31  For  these  figures  see  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94, 
pp.  62-63. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM 


91 


for  this  period  was  the  increased  efficiency  in  educational  or- 
ganization and  administration.  Several  of  the  unsatisfactory 
conditions  with  reference  to  school  organization  and  adminis- 
tration which  existed  at  the  end  of  the  last  period  had  been, 
by  the  close  of  this  one,  either  partly  or  entirely  overcome.  For 
example,  (i)  the  schools  were  not  as  much  subordinated  to 

TABLE  IX 

How  THE  COUNTIES  .  TAXED  THEMSELVES   FOR  THE   SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS 
DURING  THE  PERIOD  1884-1892  32 


1884- 
1885 

1886- 
1887 

1887- 
1888 

1888- 
1889 

1889- 
1890 

1890- 
1891 

1891- 
1892 

Number  of  counties  levying 
the  maximum  5  mills    .  .    . 

o 

e 

7 

7 

7 

16 

17 

Number  levying  more  than  4 
but  less  than  5  mills 

o 

•2 

4 

6 

7 

6 

7 

Number  levying  4  mills  (max- 
imum in  1884—85) 

9' 

12 

14 

17 

17 

ii 

8 

Number  levying  more  than  3 
but  less  than  4  mills  

8 

4 

9 

2 

3 

7 

6 

Number  of  counties  levying 
the  minimum  3  mills  

9 

15 

IO 

13 

II 

4 

7 

Number    levying    2^     mills 
(minimum  in  1884-85).  .  .  . 
Number  levying  less  than  the 
county  requirement  

10 

3 

0 

6 

o 

i 

O 
O 

0 

o 

o 

i 

0 
0 

Total  number  of  counties.  .  .  . 

39 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

politics,  the  officers  being  chosen  more  with  respect  to  fitness 
than  party  affiliation.  (2)  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  various 
officials  were  more  definite.  There  was  not  so  much  unnec- 
essary overlapping,  of  which  so  many  had  complained  during 
the  period  just  preceding.  (3)  There  was  a  longer  tenure  for 
county  superintendents  of  public  instruction.  Instead  of  being 
appointed  for  a  term  of  two  years,  they  were,  after  1887,  chosen 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  This  was  undoubtedly  a  move  in  the 
right  direction,  because,  as  experience  has  shown,  it  usually  re- 
quires at  least  three  years  for  a  new  superintendent  to  get  his 
bearings  and  to  plan  and  execute  an  educational  policy  that  is 
productive  of  good  results.  (4)  The  size  of  the  county  boards 
of  public  instruction  was,  beginning  with  the  scholastic  year 
32  The  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  various  reports 
of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 


92  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

1889-90,  reduced  from  five  to  three  members  —  another  good 
move,  for  it  resulted  not  only  in  greater  administrative  efficiency, 
but  also  in  an  annual  saving  of  about  two  thousand  dollars. 
(5)  Though  far  from  perfect,  the  records  and  reports  of  the 
different  school  officers  for  this  period  were  much  more  com- 
plete, immediate,  and  reliable  than  they  were  during  the  previous 
one.  (6)  In  some  respects  the  law  was  administered  more 
faithfully  and  judiciously.  For  instance,  (a)  more  competent 
men  were  usually  appointed  as  school  officers;  (b)  prompter 
and  more  accurate  census  returns  were  made;  (c)  and,  as  a 
rule,  there  was  a  more  just  distribution  of  the  common-school 
funds,  greater  consideration  being  given  to  the  educational  needs 
of  the  remote  and  sparsely  settled  place;  and  so  on.  (7)  There 
was  also  a  stronger  bond  and  a  more  helpful  relation  among 
the  school  authorities,  which  was  made  possible  very  largely 
by  the  state  conventions  of  the  county  superintendents  and  other 
school  officers,  the  first  of  which  was  held  in  1886,  and  annually 
thereafter.  The  meetings  were  well  attended;  problems  of  their 
profession  were  discussed ;  and,  it  is  needless  to  say,  proved  quite 
profitable.  (8)  And  finally,  there  was  a  more  important  unit  of 
organization  for  the  administration  of  the  system  of  common 
schools,  for  in  June,  1889,  the  State  abandoned  the  district  for 
the  county  unit.  After  that  all  the  schools,  urban  as  well  as 
rural,  were  regarded  by  law  as  county  schools,  and  placed  under 
the  direction  and  control  of  the  county  boards  of  public  instruc- 
tion. This  was  certainly  far  better  than  the  old  district  system 
of  school  organization  and  administration.  It  resulted  in  a  saving 
of  expense,  a  larger  per  cent  of  competent  and  efficient  members 
of  the  school  boards,  increased  co-operative  action  on  the  part 
of  the  trustees,  and  in  a  greater  equality  of  schools,  support, 
supervision,  educational  facilities,  types  of  instruction,  and  quality 
of  teaching. 

The  School  Plants. — Still  another  sign  of  progress  in  the  com- 
mon schools  for  this  period  was  the  advancement  made  in  respect 
to  the  school  plants.  There  was  a  decided  advance  in  both 
quantity  and  quality.  Not  only  was  there  a  steady  and  persistent 
increase  in  the  number  of  schools  and  amount  of  equipment, 
but  also  a  gradual  and  continuous  improvement  in  the  quality  and 
condition  of  the  same.  The  buildings  were  more  favorably  lo- 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM 


93 


cated,  better  constructed,  and  more  suitably  equipped.  They 
were  erected  and  furnished  with  more  regard  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  the  teachers  and  pupils,  greater  attention  being 
given  to  the  matter  of  heating  and  lighting,  ventilation  and  san- 
itation, school  equipment  and  teaching  appliances.  Hon.  Albert 
J.  Russell,  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  in  his  an- 
nual report  ending  September  30,  1890,  says: 

"...  There  have  been  organized  and  operated  forty-four  new  schools 
during  the  year,  which  have  been  supplied  with  new  buildings,  furniture, 
and  appliances.  ...  It  is  a  matter  of  deep  interest  and  a  cause  of  con- 
gratulation to  witness  the  passing  away  of  the  crude  old-time  school- 
houses,  and,  taking  their  places,  the  new  and  more  comfortable,  better 
ventilated,  lighted,  and  pleasant  schoolhouses ;  the  pupils  are  more  thor- 
oughly interested  and  excited  to  higher  and  nobler  things,  and  the  people 


TABLE   X 

THE  NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS  OPERATED  AND  TOTAL  VALUE  OF  SCHOOL  PROP- 
ERTY ( 1884-1892 )33 


Number  of  schools 

Years 

Total  value  of 

school  property 

White 

Black 

Total 

1884-85 



... 

1,724 

$250,000* 

1885-86 

.... 

1,919 

300,oooa 

1886-87 

.590 

513 

2,103 

435.149* 

1887-88 

,736 

513 

2,249 

451.805' 

1888-89 

,691 

582 

2,273 

475.356* 

1889-90 

.746 

587 

2,333 

573.862* 

1890-91 

.747 

601 

2,348 

600,248' 

1891-92 

.774 

594 

2,368 

637.058" 

0  Approximately. 

6  No  returns  from  Bade,  DeSoto,  Hernando,  Jackson,  Lee,  Manatee,  Osceola, 
Pasco,  Sumter,  Volusia,  and  Wakulla  counties. 

c  No  returns  from  Jackson,  Volusia,  and  Wakulla  counties. 

d  Approximately.  Obtained  by  subtracting  the  amount  said  to  have  been 
expended  for  sites,  buildings,  furniture,  etc.,  during  the  following  year,  from  the 
total  value  of  the  school  property  for  that  year. 

•  No  returns  from  DeSoto,  Jackson,  and  Lafayette  counties. 

f  No  returns  from  DeSoto,  Jackson,  and  Lake  counties. 

0  No  returns  from  DeSoto  and  Jackson  counties. 

33  The  figures  of  this  table  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  the 
state  superintendent  and  the  United  States  commissioner  of  education. 


94  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  the  districts  have  new  sources  of  pride  stimulated  by  these  very 
pleasant  innovations  upon  the  past,  and  are  more  concerned  and  in- 
terested. It  is  a  fact  that  school  privileges  are  ample  in  Florida.  The 
immigrant  cannot  make  a  home  in  the  State  now  but  that  he  will  find  the 
schoolhouse  door  open  to  his  children,  and  in  convenient  distance,  unless 
he  should  choose  to  settle  in  some  unsurveyed  part  of  the  State,  and 
even  these  parts  are  rapidly  yielding  to  the  increasing  population." 

Though  the  last  two  sentences  of  this  quotation  should  be  taken 
with  a  grain  of  allowance,  it  is  quite  certain  that  during  Super- 
intendent Russell's  administration  a  decided  improvement  was 
made  in  the  matter  of  school  plants.  The  foregoing  table  will 
give  us  some  idea  as  to  what  was  done  along  this  line. 

The  Courses  of  Study. — A  fourth  sign  of  progress  in  the 
public-school  system  is  seen  in  the  improvement  that  was  made 
in  the  courses  of  study.  Though  no  well-constructed  plans  were 
evolved,  either  by  the  state  or  county  authorities,  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  teachers,  the  curricula,  as  a  rule,  became  richer  in 
content  and,  in  a  few  cases,  a  little  better  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  pupils.  In  most  of  the  schools  there  was  a  course  in 
reading,  writing,  elementary  arithmetic,  spelling,  primary  geog- 
raphy, outlines  of  United  States  history,  and  the  history  of 
Florida;  in  some  of  the  schools  there  was,  in  addition  to  the 
courses  just  mentioned,  a  course  in  physical  and  political  geog- 
raphy, elements  of  bookkeeping,  English  grammar  and  compo- 
sition, outlines  of  general  history,  and  a  more  advanced  course 
in  arithmetic  and  United  States  history;  and  in  every  school 
there  was,  by  the  close  of  the  period,  a  course  in  elemen- 
tary physiology  and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the 
physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants 
and  narcotics.34  The  courses  of  instruction  were  prepared  by 
the  different  county  boards  of  education,  in  consultation  with 
some  of  the  leading  teachers.35  At  first  there  were  practically 
no  schools  in  which  the  courses  were  graded ;  but  in  1889  an 
effort  was  made  to  grade  them  properly.35  As  a  result  of  that 
effort,  graded  schools  sprang  up  rapidly  during  the  last  three 
years  of  the  period.  They  were  generally  of  eight  grades,  each 

3*The  school  law  of  1889  made  it  obligatory  upon  the  county  boards 
of  education  to  require  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene  to  be  taught 
in  every  public  school  in  their  respective  counties. 

35  This  was  required  by  the  school  law  of  1889. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  95 

grade  requiring  one  year  for  its  completion.  By  the  end  of  the 
period  there  were  quite  a  number  of  schools  in  which  the 
courses  of  study  were  not  only  broader  and  more  numerous, 
but  also  tolerably  well  graded.  This,  as  you  readily  see,  meant 
a  great  deal  in  the  improvement  of  the  public-school  system 
and  the  efficiency  of  its  work. 

The  Teaching  Force. — Perhaps  the  best  evidences  of  educa- 
tional progress  during  this  period,  except  the  cheerful  will- 
ingness of  the  people  to  tax  themselves  for  the  support  of  the 
schools,  was  the  increased  number  and  efficiency  of  the  teaching 
force.  Instead  of  1,653  teachers,  only  73  of  whom  held  first- 
grade  certificates,86  as  was  the  case  in  1884-85,  there  were,  in 

An  applicant  for  a  certificate  of  any  grade,  before  being  eligible  for 
examination,  was  required  to  produce  satisfactory  evidence  of  being  of 
strictly  temperate  habits  and  maintaining  a  good  moral  character  (see 
School  Law  of  1889,  section  26). 

An  applicant  for  a  third-grade  certificate  was  examined  in  reading, 
writing,  elementary  arithmetic,  spelling,  primary  geography,  United  States 
and  Florida  history,  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  the  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching.  No  certificate  was  issued  unless  the  applicant  made  a 
general  average  of  at  least  seventy-five  (75)  per  cent  (see  Regulations 
of  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1889). 

36  Teachers'  certificates  were  of  three  grades  (first,  second,  and  third), 
the  standard  of  qualification  for  all  three  being  fixed  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction.  The  second-  and  third-grade  certificates 
were  granted  by  the  county  boards  of  public  instruction,  and  were  good 
for  just  one  year,  and  only  in  the  county  in  which  they  were  issued. 
The  first-grade,  or  state,  certificates  were  granted  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent, and  were  good  in  any  part  of  the  State  during  the  time  specified 
therein  (see  School  Law  of  1889,  sections  24-25). 

An  applicant  for  a  second-grade  certificate  was  examined  in  the  same 
branches  required  for  a  third  grade,  and,  in  addition  to  these,  in  arith- 
metic (complete),  advanced  geography,  English  grammar  and  composition, 
outlines  of  general  history,  and  the  elements  of  bookkeeping.  A 
general  average  of  eighty  (80)  per  cent  or  more  was  required  (see  Regu- 
lations of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1889). 

First-grade  certificates  were  issued  only  to  graduates  of  normal 
schools  and  approved  colleges  (without  examination)  and  'to  successful 
teachers  who  held  second-grade  certificates  and,  on  examination  in  the 
branches  usually  taught  in  the  high  schools  of  that  period,  made  an 
average  grade  of  at  least  eighty-five  (85)  per  cent.  There  were  no 
exceptions  to  this  rule  unless  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion had  strong  and  satisfactory  reasons  for  the  same  (see  Regulations 
of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1889). 


96 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


1891-92,  2,782  teachers,  over  500  of  whom  held  such  certificates.37 
Of  course,  there  was  never  a  sufficient  number  of  really  com- 
petent teachers,  but  throughout  the  period  there  was  a  steady 
and  persistent  increase  in  the  number  of  those  engaged  to  teach, 
and  a  gradual  improvement  in  their  fitness  for  service. 

The   following   table   shows   the   increase   in  the   number  of 
teaching  positions  filled  during  the  period. 

TABLE   XI 
THE  NUMBER  OF  TEACHING  POSITIONS  FILLED  ( 1884-1892) 38 


Years 

Number  of  teachers 

Years 

Number  of  teachers 

White 

Black 

Total 

White 

Black 

Total 

1884-85 
1885-86 
1886-87 
1887-88 

1.739 
1.793 

579 
620 

1.653 
1,838 
2,318 
2,413 

1888-89 
1889-90 
1890-91 
1891-92 

1,718 
1,849 
1,956 
2,006 

694 
66  1" 
685 
776 

2,412 
2,510 
2,641 
2,782 

Generally  speaking,  the  teachers  employed  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  period  were  better  equipped,  personally,  profession- 
ally, and  socially,  than  those  employed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period;  they  were  more  enthusiastic  and  energetic,  more  re- 
sourceful and  self-reliant;  had  a  better  command  of  the  subject- 
matter  and  better  training  for  the  special  task  of  teaching;  were 
more  co-operative  and  more  determined  in  their  pursuit  of  ex- 
cellency and  success;  had  greater  teaching  ability  and  were  an- 
imated by  a  more  healthful  esprit  de  corps  —  all  of  which 
resulted  in  the  accomplishment  of  much  better  work. 
,  This  improvement  in  the  teaching  body  was  due  principally 
to  the  increased  provision  for  the  preparation  of  those  intending 
to  teach.  At  the  close  of  the  last  period  there  was  but  little 
provision  for  the  preparation  of  teachers.39  It  consisted,  for 
the  most  part,  in  a  small  number  of  teacher-training  courses 
offered  by  a  few  secondary  and  some  of  the  best  elementary 

37  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  102. 

38  The  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  State 
Superintendent  Russell. 

39  Vide  ante,  pp.  72-75. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  97 

schools  of  the  State,  in  ten  two-year  scholarships  provided  for 
by  the  Peabody  Educational  Fund  for  white  teachers  in  the 
normal  department  of  Nashville  University,  Nashville,  Tennes- 
see,40 in  the  courses  for  prospective  teachers  given  by  both  the 
East  and  West  Florida  Seminaries,  and  in  one  normal  of  a 
month's  duration  for  colored  teachers  at  Tallahassee.  However, 
during  this  period  great  advance  was  made  in  the  matter  of 
providing  for  the  preparation  of  teachers.  Better  and  an  in- 
creasing number  of  teacher-training  courses  were  given  by  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools;  a  larger  faculty,  more  ad- 
equate equipment,  and  better  courses  of  study  were  provided  in 
both  of  the  seminaries;  and,  in  addition,  other  means  were  pro- 
vided for  supplying  a  better  trained  corps  of  teachers. 

In  1884,  just  a  few  months  after  Hon.  A.  J.  Russell  assumed 
the  duties  of  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  additional 
provision  was  made  for  the  training  of  negro  teachers.  Two 
colored  normals  of  two  months'  duration  were  established  by 
him  —  one  at  Gainesville,  under  the  principalship  of  Professor 
W.  N.  Sheats,  and  the  other  at  Tallahassee,  under  Professor 
John  A.  Graham.41  The  total  attendance  was  ninety-four  (94), 42 
fifty-one  (51)  of  whom  received  certificates  to  teach,  eleven  (n) 
receiving  second-grade  and  forty  (40)  third-grade  certificates. 
These  schools  were  continued  during  the  two  years  immediately 
following,43  the  one  at  Gainesville  being  taught  by  Professors 
Edwin  P.  Cater,  Goodwin,  and  Mcllvaine  in  1885,  and  by  Pro- 
fessors Sheats,  Maddox,  Waters,  and  Mrs.  Ingram  in  1886,  and 
the  one  at  Tallahassee  by  Professors  H.  N.  Felkel  and  John  A. 
Graham  in  1885,  and  by  Professors  Felkel,  Graham,  and  Merz 
in  i886.44  The  total  attendance  at  Gainesville  was  one  hundred 

40  These   scholarships   were   discontinued   in    1885,   for   that   year   the 
trustees  of  the    Peabody   Educational  Fund   withdrew   all   aid   from   the 
State,  on  account  of  some  trouble  concerning  certain  Florida  bonds  which 
they  held.    However,  at  their  annual  meeting  in  October,  1892,  the  State 
was  restored  to  participation  in  the  fund;  eight  scholarships  were  granted, 
and  these  were  immediately  filled  by  appointment  by  State  Superintendent 
Russell. 

41  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1882-84,  pp.  9-10. 

42  Forty-seven  (47)  at  each  school. 

43  This  was  made   possible   by  a  legislative  appropriation   in   1885  of 
$1,000  to  each  school  for  the  years  1885  and  1886. 

44  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,   1884-86,  p.  8. 


98  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

nineteen  (119),  forty-nine  (49)  for  the  first  of  these  two  years 
and  seventy  (70)  for  the  second,  and  at  Tallahassee  one  hundred 
eighteen  (118),  forty-seven  (47)  for  the  first  and  seventy-one 
(71)  for  the  second,  making  a  total  of  two  hundred  thirty-seven 
(237)  for  the  two  schools  during  the  years  1885  and  1886. 
There  were  in  attendance  at  these  normals  for  all  three  years 
(1884-86)  a  total  of  three  hundred  thirty-one  (331)  students, 
all  of  whom  were  deeply  interested  and  studious.44  As  a  result, 
evidently  much  good  was  accomplished ;  for  Superintendent  Rus- 
sell, speaking  of  the  work  of  these  schools  for  the  training  of 
negro  teachers,  said :  44 

"We  have  labored  to  make  these  normal  schools  absolutely  practical 
in  every  sense,  laboring  to  teach  these  teachers  how  to  teach  the  children 
under  their  care,  to  inspire  them  with  a  proper  ambition,  and  to  im- 
press them  with  the  importance  of  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged." 

In  1884  there  was  an  additional  provision  for  the  preparation 
of  white  teachers,  also.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year  the  Florida 
Agricultural  College,  at  Lake  City,  which  had  been  built, 
equipped,  and  organized  since  Mr.  Russell's  entrance  into  office, 
was  opened  for  the  admission  of  students.  Though  the  design 
of  this  institution  was45  primarily  "  to  teach  such  branches  of 
learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts," 
other  branches  also  were  taught.  In  the  preparatory  department, 
there  were  three  groups  of  studies  offered40 — a  classical  group, 
a  literary  group,  and  a  scientific  and  philosophical  group.  In 
the  college  proper,  there  were  six  groups  of  studies  offered, 
which  lead  to  three  different  degrees47 —  a  classical  and  a  literary 
group,  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts;  a  scientific, 
an  engineering,  and  an  agricultural  group,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  science;  and  a  philosophical  group,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  philosophy.48  The  school  was  con- 
tinued throughout  the  period.  During  this  time  it  was  greatly 
improved  in  the  matter  of  buildings  and  equipment;  its  faculty 
was  increased  from  five  to  fourteen  members ;  its  courses  of 
study  were  considerably  enriched;  its  enrollment  was  increased 

45  See  the  Merrill,  or  Land-Grant,  Act  of  1862,  Sec.  4. 

46  Each  of  these  groups  required  two  years  for  its  completion. 

47  Each  of  these  degrees  required  four  years  of  work. 

48  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1882-84,  p.  14. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  99 

from  thirty-eight  to  nearly  one  hundred  students;  and  it  grad- 
ually grew  in  public  favor.  One  of  the  results  of  its  work  was 
that  it  proved  to  be  quite  influential  in  advancing  the  cause  of 
education,  not  only  higher,  but  secondary  and  elementary  ed- 
ucation also.  Speaking  of  this  college  and  the  two  seminaries, 
State  Superintendent  Sheats,  in  1894,  said : 49 

"It  would  be  a  favor  of  love  -to  record  what  a  splendid  influence 
these  institutions,  working  from  the  top  downward  and  outward,  and  co- 
operating with  public-school  effort  working  from  the  bottom  upward, 
through  their  various  faculties,  graduates  and  undergraduates,  have  had  in 
helping  to  bring  to  pass  the  magnificent  epoch,  from  about  1880  to  1895,  in 
educational  interest  and  growth  in  all  grades  of  schools  in  the  State." 

Again,  he  said : 50  "  They  have  been  helpful  adjuncts  in  pro- 
ducing the  enthusiasm  and  activity  characteristic  of  the  public 
school  movement  in  the  State." 

In  1887,  still  further  means  were  provided  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers.  The  legislature  of  that  year,  in  accordance  with 
the  constitutional  requirement,  made  provision  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  two  normal  schools  —  one  for  whites  and  one  for 
negroes.51  The  one  for  whites,  officially  designated  and  known 
as  the  State  Normal  College  for  White  Students,  was  located 
at  De  Funiak  Springs;  the  one  for  negroes,  at  first  designated 
and  known  as  the  State  Normal  College  for  Colored  Students, 
but  after  1890  as  the  Florida  State  Normal  and  Industrial  Col- 
lege for  Colored  Students,  was  located  at  Tallahassee.  Both 
these  schools  were  opened  and  put  into  operation  the  first  week 
in  October,  1887,  tne  white  normal  having  an  attendance  of 
sixteen  (16)  students  the  first  day,  and  the  colored  fifteen  (15), 
the  former  enrolling  fifty-seven  (57)  students  during  the  year, 
and  the  latter  fifty-two  (52).  Both  were  tolerably  well  equipped 
and  provided  with  good  instructors.  In  the  one  for  whites, 
there  were  two  departments  —  a  normal  department  and  a  pre- 
paratory department.  The  work  of  the  normal  department  was 
arranged  so  as  to  require  two  years  for  its  completion,  and  in- 
cluded courses  in  methods  of  instruction,  school  organization, 
school  management,  and  such  other  subjects  as  were  necessary  to 

49  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  48. 

50  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  50. 

51  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1887,  Chap.  3692,  pp.  36-37. 


100  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

prepare  the  students  to  do  efficient  work  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  State.  The  work  of  the  preparatory  department  required 
one  year  of  study,  and  had  as  its  design  the  review  or  com- 
pletion of  the  common-school  branches  and  the  preparation  of 
those  desirous  of  taking  the  normal  courses.  The  colored  nor- 
mal was  organized  at  first  on  exactly  the  same  plan  as  the  one 
for  whites,  but  with  slightly  different  courses  of  instruction. 
Later  (1891),  however,  two  other  departments  were  organized  — 
an  agricultural  department  and  an  industrial  department.  These 
schools  were  open  to  persons  of  both  sexes  from  sixteen  years 
old  and  upwards,  and  tuition  in  them  was  entirely  free.  Those 
completing  the  work  in  either  of  them  were  recipients,  not  only 
of  a  diploma  of  graduation,  but  of  a  life  certificate  also,  which 
entitled  its  holder  to  teach  in  any  of  the  public  schools  of 
Florida.  The  number  availing  themselves  of  the  privileges  of 
these  institutions  continued  to  increase.  Instead  of  having  be- 
tween fifty  (50)  and  sixty  (60)  students  in  attendance,  as  was 
the  case  in  1887-88,  each  of  them  had  nearly  twice  as  many  in 
1891-92.  The  work  of  instruction  was  excellent,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  ease  with  which  all  the  students,  especially  the  graduates, 
secured  the  very  best  positions  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State, 
and  by  the  satisfactory  manner  in  which  they  performed  the 
duties  of  those  positions.  There  can  scarcely  be  any  doubt 
but  that  the  influence  of  these  two  normals  contributed  much 
to  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  force  in  Florida  during  the 
last  five  years  of  this  period.52 

In  addition  to  the  schools  already  mentioned,  there  were  quite 
a  number  of  others  which  were  not  supported  by  the  State  that 
contributed  no  little  in  the  way  of  supplying  the  schools  of 
Florida  with  better  trained  teachers.  I  refer  to  the  various 
denominational  and  private  schools  of  the  State,53  one  of  the 

52  See  An.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1887,  pp.  12-13 ;  1888,  pp.  4-8  ; 
1889,   pp.    14-16;    1889-90,   pp.    15-18;    1890-91,   pp.    12-16;    and    1891-92, 
pp.   15-20. 

53  The  most  flourishing  of  these  schools  were  the  following : 
(a)  The  Florida  Normal  School  and  Business  Institute. 

(fc)  Jasper  Normal  Institute,  located  at  Jasper,  in  Hamilton  County. 
This  school  was  established  by  Prof.  J.  M.  Guilliams  in  September,  1890, 
and  from  the  very  first  had  a  large  patronage. 

(c)  DeLand  Academy,  located  at  DeLand,  in  Volusia  County.     This 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  1Q1 

most  important  of  which  was  the  Florida  Normal  School  and 
Business  Institute  located  at  White  Springs,  in  Hamilton  County. 
This  was  a  private  institution,  owned  and  controlled  by  Prof. 
J.  L.  Skipworth.  The  school  was  established  early  in  the 
eighties,  but  was  not  incorporated  until  June,  i887.5*  It  had 
three  departments  —  a  literary  department,  a  commercial  depart- 
ment, and  a  musical  department.  In  the  literary  department, 
there  were  three  groups  of  studies  offered  —  an  English  group, 
which  required  four  terms  of  ten  weeks  each  for  its  completion, 
and  a  classical  and  a  scientific  group,  each  of  which  required 
five  terms  for  its  completion.  The  work  of  this  school  was 
highly  regarded,  as  is  evidenced  by  its  large  patronage,  its  at- 
tendance being  nearly  two  hundred  by  the  close  of  the  period, 
and  by  the  fact  that  the  legislature  of  1889  donated  it  five 
thousand  dollars  to  help  in  the  construction  of  buildings  and 
in  the  purchase  of  apparatus.55  The  school,  in  return,  granted 
free  tuition  in  the  literary  department  perpetually  for  one  pupil 
from  each  senatorial  district,  the  beneficiaries  to  be  appointed 

school  was  founded  by  Hon.  H.  A.  DeLand,  of  Fairport,  New  York,  in 
1883.  It  was  opened  for  work  on  the  8t'h  day  of  November  of  that 
year.  In  1885  it  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Baptist  State  Associa- 
tion, and  the  following  year  became  known  as  DeLand  Academy  and 
College.  On  May  4,  1887,  it  was  chartered  as  DeLand  University,  its 
name  being  changed  in  February,  1889,  to  John  B.  Stetson  University. 

(d)  Orange   College,   located  at   Starke,   in   Bradford   County.     This 
school  was   chartered   in    1883,   and  was   owned  and   controlled   by   the 
Christian  Church. 

(e)  Rodlins    College,    located    at    Winter    Park,    in    Orange    County. 
This  college  was  incorporated  April  28,   1885,  and  was  opened  for  the 
matriculation   of   students  on  the  4th   day   of   November   of   that  year. 
Though  advertised  as  non-sectarian,  it  was  under  the  control  of  the  Gen- 
eral Congregational  Association  of  the  State. 

(/)  The  Florida  Conference  College,  located  at  Leesburg,  in  Lake 
County.  This  school  was  owned  and  controlled  by  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  South.  It  was  first  established  at  Orlando  as  a  high  school, 
but  a  year  or  two  later  (1886)  it  was  removed  to  Leesburg,  and  char- 
tered as  a  college. 

(g)  The  St.  John's  Conference  College,  located  at  Orange  City,  in 
Volusia  County.  This  institution  was  owned  and  controlled  by  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  North,  It  was  incorporated  in  1887. 

54  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1887,  Chap.  3809,  pp.  256-57. 

55  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Chap.  3869,  p.  70. 


102  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

by  the  senators  of  their  respective  districts.  It  is  because  of 
this  gift  on  the  part  of  the  State,  together  with  these  perpetual 
scholarships,  covering  tuition,  that  I  mention  this  school  in  con- 
nection with  those  supported  by  state  appropriations.  Speaking 
of  it,  State  superintendent  Sheats,  in  1894,  said : 56 

"  It  is  due  this  institution  to  say  that  in  its  palmiest  days,  before  the 
health  of  its  business  manager  (Professor  Skipwort'h)  began  to  fail,  it 
had  twice  as  many  students  from  its  halls  teaching  public  schools  as  any 
two  institutions  in  the  State;  and  for  a  time  it  exerted  a  wonderfully 
beneficial  influence  on  the  teaching  force  of  the  State." 

The  System  of  Public  Instruction. — Finally,  evidence  of  growth 
and  advancement  in  the  public-school  system  of  Florida  during 
Superintendent  Russell's  administration  is  seen  in  the  extension 
of  the  system.  Heretofore,  there  were  but  very  few  school^ 
offering  instruction  beyond  that  of  the  elementary  school.  During 
the  administration  of  Mr.  Russell,  however,  better  opportunities 
were  provided,  not  only  for  elementary,  but  also  for  secondary, 
higher,  and  professional  instruction.  The  public-school  system 
of  the  State  had,  as  never  before,  come  to  be  regarded  as  one 
continuous  school-system,  extending  from  the  elementary  school 
to  and  through  the  state  college. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  institutions  in  which 
higher  and  professional  instruction  were  offered.  These  were 
the  East  Florida  Seminary,  the  West  Florida  Seminary,  the 
Florida  Agricultural  College,  the  State  Normal  College  for 
White  Students,  and  the  State  Normal  College  for  Colored 
Students,  all  of  which,  except  the  first  two,  were  built,  equipped, 
and  organized  after  Mr.  Russell  went  into  office.  We  shall  speak 
of  these  again  in  another  chapter.  Now,  we  wish  to  speak  of 
the  schools  in  which  secondary  instruction  was  offered. 

The  plan  of  Superintendent  Russell  was  to  establish  one  or 
more  county  high  schools  in  each  county  of  the  State,  these  to 
be  located  at  the  county  seats,  or  at  other  places  more  accessible, 
and  to  be  open  without  any  charge  whatever  to  all  youth  capable 
of  taking  the  courses  of  study  in  their  own  local  school.  In  the 
school  law  of  1889,  which,  as  already  stated,  was  framed  by 
him,  the  county  boards  of  education  were  empowered  to  do 
whatever  was  necessary  in  regard  to  establishing,  when  required 

56  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  51. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  103 

by  the  patrons,  schools  of  higher  grades  of  instruction  where 
the  advancement  and  number  of  pupils  demanded  them.57  Had 
this  been  made  mandatory,  rather  than  conditional,  upon  the 
county  boards,  every  parent,  whether  rich  or  poor,  would  have 
had  an  opportunity  to  have  given  their  children  an  education 
up  to  and  through  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  high-school  courses 
of  study.  As  it  was,  several  were  afforded  this  opportunity, 
for  such  schools  were  instituted  in  a  number  of  the  counties. 
The  main  ones,  together  with  their  location  and  the  date  of 
their  organization,  were  as  follows : 58  Summerlin  Institute, 
Bartow,  1889;  Hernando  High  School,  Brooksville,  1890;  Su- 
wannee  High  School,  Live  Oak,  1890;  Clay  County  High  School, 
Green  Cove  Springs,  1890;  Ocala  High  School,  Ocala,  1890; 
Orlando  High  School,  Orlando,  1890;  Westville  High  School, 
Westville,  1891;  Springlake  High  School,  Springlake,  1892;  and 
Putnam  County  High  School,  Palatka,  1892.  The  principal 
public  high  schools  already  established  were : 59  Jefferson  Col- 
legiate Institute,  Monticello,  1850;  St.  Johns  High  School,  St. 
Augustine,  1856;  Union  Academy  (colored),  Gainesville,  1869; 
Columbia  High  School,  Lake  City,  1874;  Duval  High  School, 
Jacksonville,  1876;  Nassau  High  School,  Fernandina,  1883; 
Hillsborough  High  School,  Tampa,  1884;  Osceola  High  School, 
Kissimmee,  1884;  Eustis  High  School,  Eustis,  1885;  Escambia 
High  School,  Pensacola,  1886;  and  the  high  schools  at  Madison 
and  Waukeenah.  However,  very  few  of  these  schools,  if  any, 
excepting  the  Duval  High  School,  had  regular  high-school 
courses  of  study,  each  extending  through  three  or  four  years, 
and  limited  themselves  to  this  type  of  work.60  Most  of  them 
were  nothing  more  than  graded  schools  with  from  one  to  three 
years  of  instruction  beyond  the  elementary  courses,  in  such  sub- 
jects- as  Latin,  mathematics,  the  elements  of  science,  general 
history,  civil  government,  rhetoric,  English  composition,  letter 
writing,  bookkeeping,  business  forms,  commercial  law,  methods 

57  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Chap.  3872,  Sec.  20,  Para.  5;  also  Re- 
vised Statutes  of  the  State  of  Florida,  1892,  Sec.  242,  Para.  5. 

58  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1890-91,  II,  1208;  1891-92,  II,  1007; 
1902,  II,  1708-09;  1903,  II,  1882-83;  1904,  II,  1795-96. 

59  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  21;  Rep.  of  Supt 
of  Pub.  Ins.,  1887,  p.  9;  "Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1904,  II,  1795-96. 

60  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  53~54- 


104  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  teaching,  school  organization,  and  school  management,  the 
design  of  such  instruction  being  to  prepare  the  youth  for  higher 
and  professional  courses  of  study,  for  an  ordinary  business  life, 
or  for  the  teaching  profession.  But  that  they  rendered  a  val- 
uable service  no  fair-minded  person  would  deny.  They  gave 
a  new  impetus  to  school  work  and  school  interest,  furnished 
an  opportunity  for  instruction  beyond  the  elementary  branches, 
which  many  of  the  youth  would  never  have  had  without  them, 
and  supplied  the  common  schools  of  the  State  with  some  of 
their  very  best  teachers. 

The  system  of  public  instruction  was  extended  also  in  another 
direction.  In  1883  the  legislature,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
State  Superintendent  Foster  and  the  endorsement  of  Governor 
Bloxham  in  his  message,  made  provision  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  an  institution  to  be  known  as  the  Florida 
Institute  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb,  in  which  tuition  was 
to  be  absolutely  free  to  all  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes  of  the 
State  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years,  the  indigent 
to  receive  also  their  board  and  clothes.  The  chief  state  officers 
were  made  trustees  of  the  school,  and  an  appropriation  of  ten 
thousand  dollars  ($10,000)  for  each  of  the  years  1883  and  1884 
was  set  apart  for  the  beginning  of  this  noble  work.61  St. 
Augustine,  in  St.  Johns  County,  secured  the  location  of  the 
institution  by  a  gift  of  five  acres  of  land  and  one  thousand 
dollars  ($1,000)  in  cash.  Plans  were  immediately  made  for  a 
group  of  buildings,  costing  twelve  thousand  seven  hundred 
forty-nine  dollars  ($12,749),  to  accommodate  both  races  sep- 
arately, and  during  the  following  year  (1884)  they  were  com- 
pleted in  a  satisfactory  manner.  In  December  the  institution 
was  opened  for  the  reception  of  students.  Professor  C.  H.  Hill, 
of  the  Maryland  Deaf-Mute  Institute,  was  elected  principal  by 
the  board  of  managers,  but,  he  failing  to  accept,  the  board  elected 
Professor  Park  Terrell,  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  who  held  the  prin- 
cipalship  from  the  early  part  of  1885  until  his  resignation  at 
the  end  of  the  school  year  1889-90.  He  was  succeeded  by  Pro- 
fessor William  A.  Caldwell,  who  held  the  principalship  until 

ei  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1883,  Chap.  3450. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  105 

the  end  of  1892-93,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Professor  H.  N. 
Felkel,  of  the  State  Normal  College  for  White  Students.62 

At  first  the  corps  of  officers  and  teachers  in  this  institution 
consisted  of  only  three  persons  —  Professor  Terrell,  principal 
and  teacher,  Mrs.  M.  D.  Taylor,  matron,  and  Mr.  T.  H.  Cole- 
man,  teacher.  Also  the  educational  facilities  were  limited. 
Hence,  the  types  of  instruction  were  necessarily  limited,  including 
simply  articulation,  facial  expression,  lip  gesture,  use  of  manual 
alphabet,  lip  reading,  and  writing.  However,  as  additional 
teachers  were  employed  and  better  equipment  provided,  other 
courses  were  offered.  By  the  close  of  the  period  the  school  had 
become  fairly  well  equipped,  and  the  number  of  officers  and 
teachers  had  increased  to  nine,  these  being  Professor  Caldwell, 
principal,  Mrs.  Caldwell,  matron,  Miss  Jennie  Stewart,  assistant 
matron,  Miss  Katharine  D.  Partridge,  manual  teacher  of  small 
white  children,  Miss  Grace  Gould,  teacher  of  articulation,  Miss 
Oakley  Bockee,  teacher  of  the  manual  system,  Miss  Luna  Sims, 
teacher  of  the  blind,  Mr.  O.  J.  Whilden,  teacher  of  type-setting 
and  printing,  and  Mr.  Andrew  Thompson,  supervisor  of  the  boys 
and  teacher  of  carpentry  and  gardening.  Courses  of  instruc- 
tion very  much  like  those  of  the  common  schools  were  offered. 
But,  in  addition  to  these,  carpentry  and  cabinet  work,  type- 
setting and  printing,  blacksmithing,  and  gardening  were  taught 
the  seeing  boys,  while  cooking,  plain  sewing,  and  other  household 
work  were  taught  the  seeing  girls ;  and  music,  bead  work,  basket 
and  broom  making  were  taught  the  blind.  Excellent  work  was 
done  in  all  the  departments,  and,  as  Superintendent  Russell 
said  in  his  annual  report  for  1 890-9 1,63  its  influence  with  these 
afflicted  children  of  the  State  can  be  measured  only  by  Him  who 
knoweth  all  things  well. 

Besides  the  educational  advantages  which  this  institution  of- 
fered the  blind  and  deaf-mutes  of  the  State,  it  also  provided 
them  with  good  home  influences.  But  notwithstanding  the  in- 
estimable privileges  and  opportunities  afforded,  it  was  three  or 

62  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1882-84,  pp.  18-19;  1884-86,  pp.  9-12;  1887,  PP.  13-16;  1888,  pp.  8-12; 
1889,   pp.   16-18;    1889-90,   pp.   20-24;    1890-91,   pp.    17-19;    and    1891-92, 
pp.  20-23. 

63  See  page  17. 


106  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

four  years  after  this  institution  was  opened  before  the  parents 
of  these  unfortunates  could  be  induced  to  place  their  children 
therein.  It  is  said  that  during  the  first  year  there  were  only 
eleven  (n)  pupils  in  attendance,  the  total  number  of  these  un- 
fortunates in  the  State  being  about  one  hundred  nineteen 
(119),  seventy-eight  of  whom  were  within  the  school  age. 
Gradually,  however,  the  fears  of  the  parents  were  removed,  their 
prejudices  were  allayed,  and  they  were  brought  to  an  appreciation 
of  the  institution's  work.  An  agency  that  did  much  along  this 
line  was  the  Florida  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Ed- 
cation  of  the  Deaf  and  Blind,  which  was  organized  in  March, 
1889.  As  a  result,  the  attendance  was  greatly  increased.  During 
the  last  year  of  the  period  there  were  six-two  (62)  pupils  in 
the  institute,  and  the  parents  of  these  pupils  were  profuse  in 
their  praise  of  the  institute's  work  and  profound  in  their  thanks- 
giving. In  this  institution,  as  in  all  the  educational  institutions 
of  the  State,  Superintendent  Russell  took  great  interest.  As 
Superintendent  Sheats  says  in  his  biennial  report  for  the  two 
years  ending  June,  i894,64  he  "  deserves  credit  for  the  benev- 
olent manner  and  fatherly  interest  he  took  in  looking  after 
the  welfare  of  these  poor  unfortunates." 

Still  another  phase  of  educational  work  to  which  Mr.  Russell 
gave  considerable  attention  was  the  matter  of  vocational  educa- 
tion, especially  with  reference  to  industrial  work,  agricultural 
pursuits,  and  household-economics.  He  took  no  little  interest 
in  the  industrial  and  agricultural  courses  which  were  given  at 
the  state  college;  and  from  the  very  first  he  urged  that  both 
instruction  and  training  along  these  two  lines,  and  also  in  house- 
hold-economics, be  made  a  part  of  the  regular  courses  of  study 
in  all  the  public  schools  of  the  State.  As  a  result  of  his  in- 
fluence, other  members  of  the  state  board  of  education  became 
convinced  of  the  importance  of  this  subject,  and  in  1886  the 
board  issued  the  following  regulation : 65  . 

"  The  state  board  of  education  are  deeply  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
the  large  majority  of  the  children  in  attendance  upon  the  public  schools 
are  children  of  the  poorer  people,  and  will  fill  the  large  and  important 
classes  of  farmers,  workmen,  mechanics,  and  artisans  of  the  State,  and 

64  See  page  55. 

65  Regulation  number  7. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  1Q7 

that  to  impart  to  them  only  the  knowledge  to  be  derived  from  the  school 
books,  excellent  and  necessary  as  it  is,  will  but  illy  equip  them  for  the 
sphere  of  life  to  which  in  Providence  and  circumstances  they  are  very 
sure  to  be  called,  and  are  still  more  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  im- 
parting to  them  some  knowledge  (to  boys  especially)  of  the  useful  and 
necessary  tools  and  implement's  used  in  the  arts  and  trades,  and  to  the 
girls  some  training  in  sewing,  cookery  and  housewifery  in  general,  by 
simple  illustrative  lectures  or  talks  upon  their  use  and  the  general  prin- 
ciples involved,  so  that  a  taste  may  be  cultivated  for  these  very  useful 
and  important  vocations  in  life  and  some  knowledge  imparted  of  them, 
but  mainly  to  impress  them  with  a  true  and  proper  conception  of  the 
honor  and  dignity  of  honest  labor.  County  superintendents  and  boards  of 
public  instruction  are  urgently  and  especially  called  upon  to  give  their 
earnest  attention  to  this  very  important  feature  of  school  work  and 
instruction." 

In  1887,  through  the  earnest  efforts  of  Superintendent  Rus- 
sell, seconded  by  the  prompt  and  generous  action  of  the  board 
of  education  in  Duval  County  and  by  the  colored  people  of 
Jacksonville,  steps  were  taken  to  inaugurate  this  much  needed 
phase  of  instruction  and  training  in  the  Jacksonville  Colored 
Graded  School.  An  annual  appropriation  of  one  thousand  dol- 
lars ($1,000)  to  be  used  for  the  teaching  of  industrial  courses 
was  secured  from  Dr.  A.  G.  Haygood,  general  agent  of  the 
Slater  Fund;  a  suitable  building  was  erected;  the  necessary 
equipment  provided;  a  splendid  teacher  employed;  and  some 
excellent  courses  in  the  industrial  arts  and  household-economics 
arranged.  That  year,  beginning  with  the  opening  of  the  school 
in  October,  instruction  in  the  nature  and  use  of  the  necessary  tools 
used  in  various  arts  and  trades  was  given  the  boys,  while  plain 
sewing,  cutting,  darning,  cooking,  laundrying,  and  other  house- 
hold work  were  taught  the  girls.  Two  hours  a  day  were 
devoted  to  this  type  of  work,  and  we  are  told66  that  the  results 
were  very  satisfactory. 

Earnest  and  continuous  efforts  were  made  by  the  state  board 
of  education,  and  especially  by  Superintendent  Russell,  to  in- 
troduce this  important  feature  of  educational  work  in  the  entire 
public-school  system.  These  efforts  met  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, as  instruction  and  training  in  the  industrial  arts,  ag- 
ricultural pursuits,  and  household-economics  were  introduced 
in  all  the  state  educational  institutions,  except  the  two  seminaries, 

66  See  Rep.  of  Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1887,  pp.  15  f- 


108 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


in  most  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  in  some  of  the  best  el- 
ementary schools.  In  this  connection  Mr.  Russell  said  in  his 
annual  report  for  i888:67 

"It  has  been  a  special  effort  on  the  part  of  the  state  board  of 
education  to  introduce  this  feature  of  practical  education  into  the  whole 
system,  and  I  am  glad  to  report  very  considerable  success,  as  already 
referred  to  at  the  state  college.  The  normal  colleges,  and  many  of  the 
larger  of  the  city  and  village  schools,  are  giving  earnest  attention  to  this 
useful  branch  of  a  practical  education,  giving  to  the  children  of  the  poor 
and  those  of  moderate  circumstances,  the  advantages  of  the  books,  and 
also  an  insight  into  the  useful  and  honorable  trades  and  mechanic  pur- 
suits." 

Furthermore,  the  system  of  public  instruction  was  extended 
so  as  not  only  to  include  other  types  of  work,  but  also  to  reach 

TABLE  XII 

TOTAL  POPULATION,  SCHOOL  POPULATION,  NUMBER  ENROLLED,  SCHOOL  AT- 
TENDANCE AND  LENGTH  OF  SCHOOL  TERM  ( 1884-1892) 68 


Years 

Total 
population 

School 
population 

School 
enrollment 

Ave.  daily 
attendance 

Ave.  length 
of  term 
in  days 

1884-85 
1885-86 

338,406° 

82,863° 

62,327 
70,997 

4L9706 
44,813 

92 

1886-87 

82,453 

51,270 

1887-88 

360  oooc 

82,  12"? 

C7.I7O 

1888-89 
1880—00 

37o,oooc 

U3.647d 

86,390 
92,472 

56,500« 
60,819 

TOO 

1890-91 
1891-92 

391.422' 
402,000" 

126,500" 
134,000" 

94,019 
93.780 

6l,000* 
62,226 

IOO 
IOO 

°  State  census  of  1884. 

6  No  report  from  one  county. 

e  Approximate  number. 

d  State  census  of  1888. 

•  Approximate  number.  The  number  given  in  Superintendent  Russell's  re- 
port is  63,652.  However,  this  is  evidently  too  large;  for  one  county,  accredited 
with  an  enrollment  of  741,  reports  an  attendance  of  5,206. 

f  United  States  census  of  1890. 

0  Approximate  number,  the  school  population  for  1892,  according  to  the  state 
census  of  that  year,  being  144,106. 

h  Approximate  number.  Russell  gives  62,004;  but  this  is  evidently  too  large, 
because  four  counties  are  accredited  with  a  larger  average  daily  attendance  than 
their  enrollment,  the  difference  in  one  county  being  3,395. 

67  See  page  18. 

68  The  figures  of  this  table  have  been  taken  from  the  reports  of  State 
Superintendent  Russell. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  109 

a  larger  per  cent  of  the  school  population  of  the  State,  and  to 
give  the  pupils  a  longer  term  of  instruction.  This  evidence 
of  educational  progress  is  seen  in  the  table  on  the  foregoing  page. 
Such  were  the  evidences  of  educational  growth  and  advance- 
ment during  the  period  from  1884  to  1892,  inclusive.  Though 
all  of  them  were  quite  marked,  they  are  still  more  marked  in 
the  next  —  that  is,  the  present  —  period  (1892-1921).  These 
we  shall  notice  in  the  subsequent  three  chapters. 

SUMMARY 

During  the  administration  of  State  Superintendent  Russell 
several  important  changes  were  brought  about  in  the  public- 
school  system  of  Florida,  the  principal  ones  being  those  effected 
by  the  constitution  of  1885  and  the  school  law  of  1889. 

This  constitution  stated  definitely  what  moneys  should  be  set 
aside  for  the  state  school-fund;  ordered  a  county  school-tax  of 
from  three  to  five  mills;  established  a  county  school-fund;  pn> 
vided  for  a  district  school-tax  of  not  more  than  three  mills;  di- 
rected that  the  state  board  of  education  should  consist  of  the 
governor,  secretary  of  state,  attorney  general,  state  treasurer, 
and  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction;  directed  that  the 
state  and  county  superintendents  should  be  elected  by  the  qual- 
ified voters ;  authorized  the  legislature  to  provide  for  the  division 
of  any  county  into  convenient  school-districts,  and  for  the  election 
biennially  of  a  district  school-board  of  three  members;  required 
that  the  children  of  the  white  race  and  the  children  of  the 
colored  race  should  be  taught  in  separate  schools,  but  ordered 
that  equal  school  privileges  should  be  accorded  to  both  races; 
demanded  that  all  county  and  district  school-funds  should  be 
expended  for  nothing  but  school  purposes,  and  that  no  public- 
school  funds  should  be  used  for  the  support  of  sectarian  schools ; 
and  ordered  the  following  legislature  to  provide  for  not  more 
than  two  normals. 

The  school  law  of  1889,  like  the  constitution,  directed  that 
the  state  board  of  education  should  be  composed  of  the  governor, 
secretary  of  state,  attorney  general,  state  treasurer,  and  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction.  It  directed  that  the  county 
boards  of  education  should  consist  of  not  more  than  three  mem- 


110  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

bers,  no  two  of  whom  could  live  in  the  same  commissioner's 
district,  and  all  of  whom  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  state 
superintendent  and  appointed  by  the  state  board.  It  gave  the 
county  boards  sole  authority  to  employ  and  assign  teachers; 
directed  them  to  prescribe  the  elementary  courses  of  study  for 
their  respective  counties;  and  authorized  them  to  establish  and 
maintain  county  high  schools.  It  provided  for  local  school 
supervisors  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  local  school-boards; 
made  provision  for  special  school-districts;  and  provided  for 
county  and  district  school-taxes. 

During  this  period  considerable  educational  progress  was  made. 
There  was  a  persistent  and  unabated  growth  of  public  interest 
in  the  work  of  the  common  schools,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
willingness  of  the  people  to  support  the  schools.  School  organ- 
ization and  administration  became  more  efficient.  More  adequate 
and  more  suitable  school  plants  were  provided.  Better  courses 
of  study  were  offered.  A  larger  and  more  competent  teaching 
corps  was  secured.  And  finally,  the  system  of  public  instruction 
was  greatly  extended. 


CHAPTER    VI 
THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  (1892-1921) 

We  come  now  to  the  modern  era  of  public  education  in  Florida, 
which  began  in  1892.  During  this  period  of  twenty-nine  years 
there  has  taken  place  a  remarkably  rapid  advance.  The  ed- 
ucational ideal  has  been  very  much  expanded,  the  administrative 
organization  has  become  much  more  efficient,  the  system  of  pub- 
lic instruction  has  been  greatly  extended,  and  the  courses  of 
study,  textbooks,  and  methods  of  teaching  have  been  consider- 
ably improved.  More  than  ever  before,  the  people  of  the  State 
have  come  to  believe  in  education  for  the  masses.  The  elemen- 
tary schools  have  multiplied,  and  one  or  more  good  high  schools 
have  been  established  in  every,  county.  The  school  receipts  have 
become  much  larger,  the  school  term  has  been  considerably 
lengthened,  and  salaries  have  sufficiently  increased  to  attract  better 
officers  and  teachers.  More  adequate  provision  for  the  prep- 
aration of  teachers  has  been  made,  better  supervision  of  instruc- 
tion has  been  provided,  and  the  inspection  of  schools  has  been 
made  a  part  of  the  system.  In  this  and  the  following  four 
chapters  we  shall  point  out  the  progress  that  has  been  made 
in  the  public-school  system  of  the  State,  mention  some  of  the 
conditions  that  have  been  favorable  to  this  progress,  and  finally, 
give  a  brief  .outline  of  the  system  as  it  is  at  present.  First, 
let  us  notice  the  evidences  of  educational  growth  and  advance- 
ment. 

I.  THE  SYSTEM  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 

One  of  the  principal  signs  of  the  development  of  public  ed- 
ucation in  the  State,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  advance  that  has 
been  made  with  regard  to  the  system  of  instruction.  While 
there  had  been  much  improvement  along  this  line,  as  we  have 
found,  by  the  close  of  the  last  period,  there  was  still  much  need 
of  greater  extension  and  further  humanization.  During  the 
present  era,  as  will  be  shown,  marked  progress  has  been  made 
in  extending  and  humanizing  the  system  of  instruction,  and  in 

111 


112  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

bringing  about  a  better  adjustment  between  the  various  grades 
and  divisions  of  the  public-school  system.  We  shall  consider, 
and  in  the  order  here  mentioned,  the  various  parts  of  this 
system:  (A)  elementary-school  instruction,  (B)  secondary- 
school  instruction,  (C)  vocational  education,  (D)  special 
types  of  school,  and  (E)  higher  and  professional  education. 

A.  ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION 

The  Extension  of  Elementary  Instruction. — During  the  last 
twenty-four  years  elementary  instruction  has  been  greatly  ex- 
tended, the  number  receiving  such  instruction  having  considerably 
increased,  and  these  for  a  much  longer  period.  In  1897-98  there 
were  but  108,455  children  enrolled  in  the  public  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  of  whom  only  6,228  were  in  grades 
higher  than  the  fifth;  the  average  daily  attendance  was  74,004, 
or  48  per  cent  of  the  school  population  and  68  per  cent  of  the 
enrollment;  and  the  average  length  of  the  school  term  was 
104  days.  In  1919-20  there  were  225,160  children  enrolled,  of 
whom  50,986  were  in  grades  higher  than  the  fifth;  the  average 
daily  attendance  was  165,720,  or  54  per  cent  of  the  school 
population  and  74  per  cent  of  the  enrollment;  and  the  average 
length  of  the  school  term  was  133  days.  In  other  words,  during 
this  interval  the  average  daily  attendance  increased  124  per  cent, 
while  the  school  population  increased  103  per  cent;  the  number 
receiving  instruction  beyond  the  fifth  grade  increased  over  700 
per  cent;  and  the  average  length  of  the  school  term  increased 
from  104  to  133  days.  Table  XIII,  on  the  following  page,  shows 
the  progress  that  has  been  made  along  these  lines  since  1892. 

Means  Used  in  the  Extension  of  Elementary  Instruction. — 
Various  means  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  extending 
common-school  instruction,  some  of  the  chief  ones  being  com- 
pulsory school-attendance,  educational  campaigns,  the  formation 
of  school-improvement  associations,  the  provision  of  better  and 
more  adequate  school  plants,  the  employment  of  a  more  efficient 
and  adequate  body  of  teachers,  and  the  transportation  of  pupils 
at  public  expense.  The  first  of  these,  though  discussed  and 
urged  by  every  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  by 
nearly  every  convention  of  county  superintendents,  by  numerous 


THE   PUBLIC-SCHOOL   AWAKENING 


113 


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114  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

state  and  county  teachers'  associations,  and  by  many  other  pub- 
lic gatherings,  has  been  used  only  recently.  Not  until  1915  was 
it  possible  to  get  the  legislature  to  enact  a  compulsory  school- 
attendance  law;2  and  then  the  best  that  could  be  secured  was 
a  local  option  law,  which  required  a  three-fifths  vote  of  the 
qualified  electors  of  a  county  or  school  district  to  put  it  into 
operation  and,  when  put  into  operation,  required  only  eighty 
days'  attendance  each  year  on  the  part  of  the  children  between 
the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen.  However,  quite  a  number  of 
districts,  and  also  a  few  counties,  availed  themselves  of  its  pro- 
visions; though  just  what  effect  the  law  had,  it  is  not  possible 
to  say.  But  in  1919  a  state-wide  compulsory-attendance  law 
was  enacted,3  which,  as  Superintendent  Sheats  points  out,*  has 
undoubtedly  been  a  very  effective  means  for  increasing  the 
attendance. 

School-improvement  associations  have  been  organized  and  cam- 
paigns in  behalf  of  elementary  education  conducted  in  many 
localities  of  the  State.5  As  a  result,  much  has  been  done  in 
the  way  of  overcoming  indifference  on  the  part  of  parents, 
which  has  always  been  one  of  the  principal  hindrances  to  reg- 
ularity of  school  attendance;  of  arousing  indifferent  patrons  to 
a  clearer  conception  of  duty  with  reference  to  the  education 
of  their  children;  and  of  causing  both  parents  and  children  to 
see  more  fully  the  importance  of  an  elementary  education.  Both 
methods  have  indeed  been  quite  effective  in  bringing  about  a 
better  attendance. 

Another  method  used  in  making  common-school  instruction 
more  universal  has  been  the  transportation  of  pupils  to  and  from 
school  at  the  expense  of  the  public.  The  first  county  to  use 
this  system  to  any  considerable  extent  was  Duval,  in  1898.° 
That  same  year,  however,  there  were  four  other  counties  which 
made  slight  use  of  it  —  Citrus,  Jackson,  Polk,  and  Volusia.7 
But  since  then  nearly  every  county  of  the  State  has  resorted 

2  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6831.  t 

3  This  will  be   discussed  in  Chapter  X. 

4  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  32. 

5  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  pp.  7-13. 

6  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1898-1900,  pp.  341-42. 

7  Ibid.,  pp.  334,  352,  377,  and  39L 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  H5 

to  free  transportation  for  children  living  too  far  from  school 
to  walk.  Hence,  quite  a  number  of  children  have  been  enabled 
to  attend  school,  who  otherwise  would  have  been  deprived  of 
this  privilege.  The  progress  made  along  this  line  may  be  seen 
in  Table  XIV,  on  the  next  page. 

But  the  most  widely  used  means  for  improving  school  attend- 
ance have  been  the  providing  of  more  adequate  and  more 
suitable  school  plants  and  the  employment  of  a  larger  and  better 
teaching  force.  School  officers  throughout  the  State,  realizing 
that  inadequate,  uncomfortable,  and  unattractive  schools,  taught 
by  inefficient  teachers,  constitute  serious  obstacles  to  school  at- 
tendance, have  always  been  trying  to  bring  about  an  increase 
and  an  improvement  in  the  school  plants  and  the  teaching  staff. 
Consequently,  much  has  been  accomplished  along  both  these  lines. 
This  is  partly  shown  in  Table  XIV,  and  partly  in  the  tables  on 
pages  124,  173,  and  180. 

The  Curricula  of  the  Elementary  Schools. — The  curricula,  too, 
have  been  considerably  improved,  the  courses  of  study  offered 
having  been  both  increased  and  enriched.  At  first  the  courses 
of  instruction  were  few  and  very  simple,  being  concerned  pri- 
marily with  spelling  and  the  three  R's.8  To  be  sure,  a  number 
of  other  subjects  were  taught,  for  example,  geography,  English 
grammar  and  composition,  United  States  and  Florida  history, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  and  sometimes  the  elements  of  book- 
keeping; but,  as  a  rule,  these  were  given  only  scant  attention. 
As  to  content,  the  courses  of  study  in  the  various  subjects  were 
usually  quite  defective,  both  quantitatively  and  qualitatively. 
They  were  almost  entirely  expressed  in  terms  of  pages  of  the  text- 
books used,  having  but  little,  if  any,  supplementary  material 
provided;  and  were,  in  most  cases,  also  poorly  adapted  to  meet 
the  actual  needs  of  the  pupils.  Furthermore,  there  was  con- 
siderable inequality  among  the  various  counties  of  the  State,  and 
even  among  the  schools  of  the  same  county,  in  regard  to  the  liber- 
ality and  the  enrichment  of  the  courses  of  instruction.  In  short, 
the  curricula  lacked  many  of  the  common  elements  which  make 
for  the  welfare  of  a  state. 

8  This  is  evident  from  the  outlined  courses  of  study  issued  by  the 
county  boards  of  public  instruction,  a  number  of  which  I  have  had  the 
opportunity  to  examine. 


116 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


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THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  117 

There  were  at  least  two  causes  for  the  foregoing  weaknesses. 
In  the  first  place,  the  framing  of  the  courses  of  study  was  left 
entirely  to  the  different  county  school  boards,10  with  no  super- 
vision save  that  of  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  teachers  whom 
they  chose  to  consult.  On  account  of  indifference  or  neglect 
many  of  them  failed  to  prepare  a  curriculum  for  the  schools 
of  their  respective  counties,11  leaving  it  to  the  teachers  of  the 
various  schools  as  to  what  they  should  teach;  and,  judging  from 
the  curricula  that  were  prepared,  it  is  quite  evident  that  a 
number  of  the  other  school  boards  were  not  competent  to  pre- 
scribe a  course  of  study.  In  the  second  place,  there  was,  in 
many  instances,  a  lack  of  co-operation  between  the  teachers 
and  their  school  boards  in  enforcing  the  courses  of  instruction 
that  had  been  prepared.12  In  some  cases  the  boards  found  it 
difficult,  because  of  the  objections  from  patrons,  to  get  the 
teachers  to  enforce  the  courses  of  study;  and  in  other  cases 
the  boards  failed  to  sustain  those  teachers  who  were  inclined 
to  insist  on  a  regular  curriculum.  It  is  quite  natural,  therefore, 
that  the  older  elementary-school  curricula  were  deficient  in  both 
quantity  and  quality. 

In  order  to  remedy  the  meagerness  of  the  earlier  curricula 
State  Superintendent  W.  N.  Sheats,  in  1894,  recommended  the 
passage  of  a  law  authorizing  the  state  board  of  education  to 
formulate  prescribed  courses  of  study.13  Since  then  school 
officers,  principals,  teachers,  and  others  interested  in  the  educa- 
tional welfare  of  the  State  have,  from  time  to  time,  urged  the 
passage  of  such  a  law;  and  within  the  last  few  years  nearly  all 
the  conventions  of  county  superintendents  and  other  school 
officers  and  county  and  state  teachers'  associations  have  adopted 
resolutions  to  this  effect.14  As  a  result,  there  has  been  developing 
a  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  prescribed  courses  of  study  for 
all  the  schools  of  the  State.  A  bill  making  such  provision  met 
with  no  opposition  in  the  legislature  of  1915,  it  having  died 

10  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Sec.  20,  Para.  10;  also  Revised  Statutes 
of  the  State  of  Florida,  1892,  Sec.  242,  Para.  10;  and  Compilation  of  the 
School  Laws,  1893,  Sec.  28. 

11  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Stipt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  p.  380. 

12  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  125. 
™Ibid.,  p.  126. 

14  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  54- 


118  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

on  the  second  reading  in  the  senate  simply  through  oversight. 
It  then  seemed  evident,  in  view  of  the  almost  universal  demand 
for  a  state  school  curriculum,  that  the  legislature  of  1917  would 
certainly  enact  a  law  to  this  effect.  However,  it  failed  to  do 
so.  Therefore,  the  conference  of  county  superintendents,  high- 
school  principals,  and  other  school  officers,  which  met  at  Gaines- 
ville on  the  tenth  of  May  of  the  following  year  (1918),  adopted 
resolutions  requesting  State  Superintendent  Sheats  to  have  pre- 
pared a  uniform  curriculum  of  the  public  elementary  and  second- 
ary schools  of  Florida.15  The  resolutions  provided  (i)  that 
he  should  send  a  circular  letter  to  the  several  county  school 
boards  asking  for  a  voluntary  contribution  to  meet  the  'expenses 
of  preparing  and  printing  a  state  school  curriculum,  (2)  that 
he  should  endeavor  to  raise  for  this  purpose  a  sum  of  $1,000 
by  prorating  the  amount  among  the  various  school  boards  on 
the  basis  of  the  wealth  of  the  counties,  and  (3)  that  if  the  money 
were  assured  he  should  appoint  a  commission  of  the  leading 
educators  of  the  State  to  prepare  the  courses  of  study.  In 
accordance  with  these  resolutions,  a  letter  was  sent  to  all  the 
school  boards  on  June  1st,  in  response  to  which  every  board  but 
one  cheerfully  and  promptly  forwarded  the  amount  apportioned 
thereto,  the  total  being  $99o.16  This  sum  of  money  having 
been  received,  a  commission  consisting  of  three  county  super- 
intendents of  public  instruction,17  four  high-school  principals,18 
four  representatives  of  the  grammar  grades,19  three  represen- 
tatives of  the  primary  grades,20  and  four  representatives  of  vo- 
cational education,21  was  at  once  appointed.22  This  commission 
met  at  Tallahassee  the  latter  part  of  June,  and  formulated 
a  uniform  public-school  curriculum,  which  met  with  almost  uni- 
versal approval  among  the  school  men  of  the  State.  By  act  ap- 

15  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  45-46. 

16  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  47. 

17  J.  E.  Knight,  P.  G.  Shaver,  and  C.  R.  M.  Sheppard. 

18  W.  S.  Cawthon,  R.  M.  Evans,  J.  M.  Guilliams,  and  J.  H.  Workman. 
i»  W.  T.  Cash,  Mrs.  Emma  A.  Mays,  S.  Philips,  and  R.  L.  Turner. 

20  Mrs.  Stella  P.  Arlington,  Miss  Nellie  C.  Stevens,  and  Miss  Maude 
Schwalmeyer. 

21  W.  L.  Floyd,  Miss  Agnes  Ellen  Harris,  Miss  Marjorie  Leach,  and 
Miss  Gertrude  York. 

22  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  45-46. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  119 

proved  June  9,  I9I9,23  it  was  "  adopted  and  validated  and  pre- 
scribed "  for  the  public  elementary  and  high  schools  of  Florida ; 
provided,  however,  that  said  curriculum  "  shall  be  considered  as 
containing  and  prescribing  the  minimum  requirements  only,  and 
that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prevent 
or  prohibit  any  school  or  schools  from  pursuing  or  completing 
other  and  additional  or  advanced'  work."  Thus,  after  a  quarter  of 
a  century's  effort  the  State  has  a  prescribed  curriculum  for  all  its 
elementary  and  high  schools,  which  is  certainly  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  An  analysis  of  this  will  be  given  in  Chapter  X. 
Other  laws  having  as  their  aim  the  improvement  of  the  com- 
mon-school curricula  have  been  passed.  A  law  having  this  as 
one  of  its  aims  was  enacted  in  I9O3.24  This  act  set  forth  the 
subjects  in  which  courses  of  instruction  should  be  offered.25  It 
required  that  instruction  should  be  given  in  the  primary  grades26 
in  reading,  spelling,  language,  physiology  and  hygiene,  number 
and  writing,  and  that  such  lessons  should  be  given  in  music, 
drawing,  geography,  nature  study,  morals  and  manners,  as  pro- 
vided for  in  the  county  courses  of  study ;  that  instruction  should 
be  given  in  the  intermediate  grades  in  the  three  R's,  spelling, 
language,  geography,  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  elementary 
science,  and  that  such  lessons  should  be  given  in  music,  drawing, 
history,  nature  study,  morals  and  manners,  as  provided  for  in 
the  county  courses;  and,  finally,  that  instruction  should  be  given 
in  the  grammar  grades  in  reading,  orthography,  grammar,  arith- 
metic (oral  and  written),  science,  physiology,  geography,  and 
history  and  civil  government  of  Florida  and  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  such  lessons  should  be  given  in  music,  drawing, 
morals  and  manners,  manual  training,  domestic  arts  and  sciences, 
and  agriculture,  as  provided  for  in  the  county  courses.  These 
requirements  were  re-enacted  in  1905,"  and  remained  in  force 

23  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7910. 

24  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5206. 

25  Sections  4-6. 

26  Each   school   year   of   instruction   was  to  be   regarded   as   a   grade 
(Sec.  2).    The  first  two  were  to  be  known  as  primary;  the  third,  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  as  intermediate;  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  as  grammar 
grades   (Sec.  3). 

27  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1905,  Chap.  5382. 


120  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

until  June  9,  1919,  when  the  present  law  regarding  the  elemen- 
tary-school curriculum  was  approved. 

This  law  further  provided,  or  at  least  it  was  clearly  implied  in 
section  eleven,  for  the  issuance  of  suggestive  elementary  courses 
and  plans.  So  the  committee  which  had  been  appointed  and 
empowered  in  accordance  with  section  eight  to  prepare  an  official 
standard  curriculum  for  the  high-school  grades,  recognizing  the 
need  of  better  elementary  courses  of  instruction,  prepared  also 
an  advisory  curriculum  for  the  elementary  grades.  This  was 
printed  in  pamphlet  form  with  the  standard  high-school  cur- 
riculum and  distributed  among  the  school  officers  and  teachers 
of  the  State.  Though  only  advisory,  it  was  generally  adopted 
by  the  county  school  boards,28  and  did  much  in  the  way  of 
improving  elementary  instruction.29 

The  common-school  curricula  were  again  enlarged  in  1909, 
when  a  law  was  passed  making  the  elementary  principles  of  ag- 
riculture and  the  elementary  principles  of  civil  government  pre- 
scribed subjects  of  study  for  all  the  common  schools  of  the  State, 
and  requiring  the  various  county  school  boards  to  prepare 
courses  of  instruction  in  these  subjects  and  to  see  that  the 
teachers  of  their  respective  counties  taught  them,  any  county 
school  board  failing  to  comply  with  this  act  being  subject  to 
removal  from  office.30  As  a  rule,  the  law  has  been,  and  still  is, 
faithfully  observed.  In  practically  all  the  schools  of  the  State 
instruction  in  these  subjects  is  being  offered. 

Still  another  law  increasing  the  number  of  subjects  to  be 
taught  in  the  common  schools  was  passed  in  191 5.31  This  act 
requires  the  teaching  of  the  evils  of  alcoholic  beverages  and  nar- 
cotics in  the  public  schools  of  the  State  to  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  years,  and  it  provides  that  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  encourage  and  put  into 
execution  an  effective  system  for  the  teaching  of  these  evils. 

28  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  229. 

29  For  this  curriculum  see  Standard  Course  of  Study  for  the  Public 
High  Schools  of  Florida,  with  an  Advisory  Course  of  Study  for  Rural 
Schools  (a  pamphlet  prepared  by  the  high-school  commission  provided  for 
in  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5206,  Sec.  8),  pp.  15-22. 

30  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1909,  Chap.  5938. 

31  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6832. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  121 

Complying  with  this  law,  State  Superintendent  Sheats  has  given 
every  possible  aid  and  encouragement,  and  nearly  all  the  county 
superintendents  and  school  boards  have  been  requiring  the  vari- 
ous teachers  to  offer  such  instruction.  Speaking  of  the  observ- 
ance of  this  excellent  act,  Mr.  Sheats  says : 32 

"...  On  the  whole,  the  law  has  been  faithfully  observed,  but  will 
receive  the  further  careful  attention  of  the  state  superintendent  to  the 
end  that  the  lesson  of  the  evils  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  shall  be  taught 
every  child  attending  school  in  Florida." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  curricula  of  the  elementary  schools  have 
become  very  much  enlarged;  but  the  instruction  offered  in  the 
different  subjects  has  become  considerably  enriched  too,  as  is 
quite  evident  from  a  comparison  of  the  older  courses  of  study 
with  the  more  recent  ones.  Nearly  all  the  recent  courses  are 
much  more  elaborate,  containing  a  plan  of  work  for  each  of 
the  eight  grades,  and  also  a  rather  full  statement  of  the  work 
to  be  expected  in  each  of  the  subjects.  In  most  of  them  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  done  in  each  branch  is  stated  largely 
in  terms  of  topics  rather  than  in  terms  of  pages  of  textbooks, 
as  in  the  earlier  courses ;  and  in  a  number  of  them  some  help- 
ful suggestions  as  to  methods  of  teaching  the  various  branches 
are  given,  and  also  considerable  supplementary  work  for  the 
pupils  is  indicated.  Furthermore,  we  find  that  the  present  ele- 
mentary courses  of  instruction  are  more  related  to  life.  Less 
stress  in  being  placed  upon  imparting  of  certain  inherited 
knowledge  of  the  past,  and  more  upon  fitting  the  pupils  to  think ; 
less  upon  the  memorizing  of  facts,  and  more  upon  the  training 
of  the  pupils  in  the  power  of  self-expression;  less  upon  the 
gathering  of  information,  and  more  upon  preparing  the  pupils 
for  the  different  forms  of  human  activity.  These  and  other 
facts  that  we  could  give,  if  space  permitted,  go  to  show  that 
considerable  improvement  has  been  made  in  the  public  elementary- 
school  curricula. 

B.  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION 

The  Extension  of  Secondary  Education. — The  past  twenty-nine 
years  have  witnessed  almost  unparalleled  growth  in  the  extension 
of  public  secondary  education  in  Florida.  By  1918  the  number 

32  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  78. 


122  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

attending  the  public  high  schools  had  grown  from  less  than 
7oo33  to  more  than  7,000, 3*  an  increase  of  over  900  per  cent, 
while  during  the  same  period  the  school  population  had  increased 
only  about  90  per  cent.  In  other  words,  attendance  in  the 
public  high  schools  has  been  growing  more  than  ten  times  as 
fast  as  the  school  population.  Table  XV  shows  the  progress 
that  has  been  made  along  this  line. 

Means  Used  in  the  Extension  of  Secondary  Education. — The 
means  that  have  been  used  for  extending  elementary  instruc- 
tion —  compulsory  school-attendance  legislation,  educational  cam- 
paigns and  school-improvement  associations,  the  consolidation  of 
rural  schools  and  the  transportation  of  pupils,  the  provision  of 
more  and  better  school  plants,  and  the  employment  of  a  more 
adequate  and  efficient  body  of  teachers  —  have  been  of  use, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  in  extending  secondary  instruction, 
also.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  elementary  education,  the  most 
widely  used  means  for  extending  secondary  education  have  been 
the  furnishing  of  more  adequate  and  suitable  school  plants  and 
the  securing  of  a  larger  and  more  competent  corps  of  teachers. 
In  this  connection  great  progress  has  been  made.  Twenty-nine 
years  ago,  when  Hon.  W.  N.  Sheats  was  elected  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  there  were  but  10  public  high 
schools  reported,35  and  these  were  worth  only  about  $65,000  ;36 
there  were  but  27  high-school  teachers,35  and  only  a  few  of 
these  had  adequate  professional  training.37  Realizing  the  need 
of  better  secondary-school  advantages,  .Mr.  Sheats  began  at  once 
to  effect  an  improvement.  He  recommended  to  the  legislature 
the  passage  of  a  bill  requiring  at  least  one  high  school  with  an 
eight  months'  term  in  each  county.  In  his  biennial  report  for 
1892-94,  he  says : 38 

*'  In  my  judgment,  there  is  missing  the  middle  link  in  the  educational 
system  of  the  State,  and  that  every  county  is  able  and  now  ready  to  sup- 
ply that  link,  if  encouraged  to  do  so,  and  the  backbone  of  the  men  charged 

33  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1892-93,  II,  1820. 

34  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  284-88. 

35  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1892-93,  II,  1820. 

36  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1893-94,  II,  1829-30;   1894-95,  II, 
1897;  1895-96,  II,  1612-13;  1896-97,  II,  1939-40;  1897-98,  II,  2108-09. 

37  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  102-07. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  123 

with  the  duty  can  be  so  strengthened  that  they  will  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the 
voice  of  demagogy.  One  good  secondary  school  for  every  county  for 
whites,  and  one  for  blacks  in  populous  negro  counties,  is  now  necessary  to 
complete  the  system  and  strengthen  both  the  common  public  school  and 
the  higher  institutions. 

"At  first  each  of  these  schools  need  not  be  strictly  a  high  school,  but 
a  graded  and  high  school,  that  is,  a  regular  graded  school  with  a  high 
school  department. 

"  I  believe  it  would  be  a  wise  step  on  the  part  of  the  legislature  to 
amend  section  242,  paragraph  5,  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  and  make  it 
mandatory,  instead  of  conditional,  upon  each  county  board  of  public 
instruction  to  establish  and  maintain  for  eight  months  in  every  year  either 
a  county  high  school  or  a  graded  and  high  school. 

"This  school  should  be  located  at  the  county  seat,  or  at  the  most  im- 
portant center  in  the  county.  ..." 

From  that  time  to  the  present  similar  recommendations  have  been 
made  in  nearly  every  report  of  the  state  department  of  education, 
and  also  resolutions  to  this  effect  have  been  adopted  by  many 
of  the  conventions  of  county  superintendents  and  other  school 
officers.  However,  no  such  law  has  yet  been  passed.  But  even 
without  a  law  requiring  each  county  to  establish  and  maintain 
one  or  more  high  schools  for  a  term  of  eight  or  nine  months 
in  every  year,  such  schools  have  been  established  in  practically 
every  county.  School  officers  throughout  the  State,  realizing  the 
importance  of  better  secondary-school  advantages,  began  to  work 
for  an  increase  and  an  improvement  in  the  school  plants  and  the 
teaching  corps.  Such  efforts  have  been  continued  from  that  day 
till  this.  As  a  result,  great  progress  has  been  made  in  both  these 
directions.  Instead  of  10  public  high  schools  with  a  property 
value  of  only  about  $65,000  and  27  high-school  teachers,  few 
of  whom  had  adequate  professional  training,  as  in  1892-93,  there 
were  in  1917-18  121  such  schools  valued  at  approximately 
$3,500,000  and  497  teachers,  308  of  whom  were  college  grad- 
uates.39 The  progress  that  has  been  made  along  these  lines  is 
shown  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

The  Curricula  of  the  Secondary  Schools. — As  we  have  shown, 
public  secondary  instruction  has  been  greatly  extended  in  Florida 
within  the  last  twenty-nine  years;  but  it  has  also  been  greatly 

38  See  pp.  121-22. 

39  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  IQ3-94- 


124 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


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THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  125 

improved.  As  in  the  elementary  schools,  the  older  courses  of 
study  were  indeed  quite  meager,  being  devoid  of  many  of  the 
elements  usually  found  in  an  up-to-date  high-school  curriculum, 
and  possessing  many  that  were  more  or  less  unrelated  to  life. 
For  the  most  part,  they  were  concerned  almost  exclusively  with 
the  old  or  traditional  secondary-school  subjects,  the  most  com- 
mon ones  being  higher  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  Latin,  rhet- 
oric, English  composition,  outlines  of  general  history,  physics, 
chemistry,  and  physical  geography;  trigonometry,  elementary 
analytics,  English  literature,  Greek,  United  States  history  and 
civil  government,  astronomy,  and  psychology  were  sometimes 
taught ;  but  little  or  no  systematic  instruction  was  given  in  phys- 
iology and  hygiene,  the  commercial  subjects,  the  manual  arts, 
household  economics,  the  agricultural  pursuits,  music,  drawing, 
and  public  speaking.  The  two  following  curricula  —  the  first 
being  the  curriculum  of  the  high  school  at  Live  Oak,  and  the 
second  that  of  the  one  at  Bradentown  —  represent  in  general 
what  the  early  high  schools  of  the  State  offered  in  the  way  of 
educational  opportunity  to  the  youth  of  their  respective  com- 
munities. 

TYPICAL  TWO-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  41 

FIRST    YEAR  SECOND  YEAR 

First  Term  Second  Term           First  Term           Second  Term 

Algebra  Algebra  Plane  Geometry  Solid  Geometry 

Rhetoric  General   History  Astronomy  Trigonometry 

Civil  Government  Physics  Literature  Chemistry 

Physical  Geog-  Word    Analysis  Botany  Geology 

Latin           [raphy  Latin  Latin  Latin 

TYPICAL  FOUR-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULUM  42 

FIRST   YEAR  SECOND  YEAB 

Higher  Arithmetic  Algebra 

Algebra  Plane  Geometry 

Henkles'  Speller  English  Literature 

Lockwood's  English  Latin  (Caesar) 

First  Latin  Book  General  History 
General   History 

THIRD  YEAR  FOURTH  YEAR 

Solid  Geometry  Trigonometry 

Word  Analysis  Elementary  Analytics 

Rhetoric  English  Criticism 

Latin   (Cicero)  Latin  (Virgil  and  Horace) 

Chemistry  Political  Science 

41  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  p.  230. 

42  Vide  ibid.,  pp.  223-^25. 


126  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

The  need  of  better  high-school  courses  of  study  was  quite 
generally  recognized  by  both  the  state  and  county  school  author- 
ities. At  the  state  convention  of  county  superintendents  and 
other  school  officers  which  met  at  Green  Cove  Springs,  Feb- 
ruary 11-13,  1902,  the  following  resolution  was  almost  unan- 
imously adopted : 43 

"  Resolved  4.  That  we  recognize  the  need  of  a  standard  course  of 
study  for  the  county  schools  and  recommend  that  the  State  Superin- 
tendent, with  a  competent  committee,  appointed  by  him,  prepare  and  dis- 
tribute among  the  schools  of  the  State  such  a  course  of  study  with  sug- 
gestions as  to  the  best  means  of  adapting  the  same  to  individual  needs." 

That  same  year  Professor  H.  E.  Bennett,  clerk  and  assistant 
of  State  Superintendent  Sheats,  prepared  a  bill  which  had  as 
one  of  its  provisions  a  provision  for  the  formulation  of  a  stand- 
ard high-school  curriculum.44  This  bill  was  introduced  by  Sen- 
ator W.  A.  Blount,  of  Escambia  County,  and  after  being  slightly 
amended  was  passed  by  both  branches  of  the  legislature,  be- 
coming a  law  May  26,  IQO3.45  Section  eight  of  this  act  provided 
for  the  appointment  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction of  a  committee  of  not  less  than  six  or  more  than  ten 
of  the  most  capable  persons,  of  whom  at  least  one-third  were 
to  be  presidents  or  principals  of  state  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  at  least  one-third  were  to  be  principals  of  high 
or  graded  schools,  and  these,  together  with  the  state  superin- 
tendent, at  the  earliest  practical  date  were  to  prepare  a  standard 
curriculum  for  the  high  schools  of  the  State.  This  curriculum 
was  to  prescribe  the  minimum  requirements  for  a  standard  high 
school  and  enough  of  other  work  to  insure  suitable  preparation 
of  the  high-school  graduates  for  admission  into  the  freshman 
classes  of  the  state  institutions  for  higher  education;  but  it  was 
not  to  prescribe  the  details  as  to  order  or  method  of  instruction, 
though  it  could  make  recommendations  along  these  lines.  It 
further  provided  that  the  state  superintendent  should  have  this 

43  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  414. 

44  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  pp.  228-30. 

45  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5206. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  127 

curriculum  printed  and  distributed  free  of  charge  among  the 
teachers  and  school  officers  of  the  State. 

^  A  committee  of  ten  was  appointed  by  State  Superintendent 
Sheats  in  July,  I9O3.4C  This  committee  met  on  the  28th  of 
the  month,  and  organized  by  electing  Superintendent  Sheats  as 
chairman.  After  a  session  of  four  days  the  work  was  com- 
pleted.47 The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  curriculum  that 
was  formulated. 

STANDARD  CURRICULUM  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  (ipoa)48 

FIRST   YEAR 

Names  of  Courses  Periods  per  Week 

English  Grammar Three 

English    Classics One 

Prose    Composition One 

Algebra    Four 

Arithmetic    One 

Physical  Geography Five 

Civil  Government  of  the  United  States49 One 

General    History    (with   special   reference   to    Greece    and 

Rome)     Four 

Collar  and  Daniel's  First  Book  in  Latin  (or  its  equivalent)  .  Five 

46  This  committee  consisted  of  the  following :  President  T.  H.  Talia- 
ferro,  University  of  Florida;   President  A.  A.  Murphree,  Florida  State 
College;    Professor   H.   E.   Bennett,  principal  of   State  Normal   School; 
Professor  J.  E,  Guisinger,  principal  of  St.  Petersburg  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial School;  Professor  T.  F.  McBeath,  principal  of  Jacksonville  Grammar 
School ;  Professor  A.  A.  Simpson,  principal  of  Osceola  High  School ;  Miss 
Maude  Schwalmeyer,  primary  teacher  in  Summerlin  Institute;  Miss  Mary 
S.  Johnson,  formerly  principal  of  Tampa  Graded  School;  Superintendent 
S.  Philips,  of  Levy  County;  Superintendent  W.  M.  Holloway,  of  Alachua 
County. 

47  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  pp.  229-30. 

48  See   Standard    Course   of   Study   for  the   Public   High   Schools   of 
Florida,  with  an  Advisory  Course  of  Study  for  Rural  Schools. 

49  In  the  junior,  or  two  year,  high  schools  the  history  of  the  United 
States  was  to  be  offered,  also. 


128  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

SECOND   YEAR 

Names  of  Courses                                                   Periods  per  Week 

English  Grammar  Three 

English    Classics One 

Prose  Composition One 

Algebra    Four 

Arithmetic One 

Zoology  (first  half  of  the  year) Five 

Botany  (second  half  of  the  year) Five 

General    History50 Five 

Four  Books  of  Caesar  (or  their  equivalent) Five 

THIRD    YEAR 

Names  of  Courses                                                   Periods  per  Week 

Rhetoric  Four 

English  Classics   One 

Plane  Geometry Five 

Physics Five 

English  History Four 

History  and  Civil  Government  of  Florida One 

Four  Orations  against  Catiline  (first  half  of  the  year) Five 

Three  Books  of  the  Aeneid  (second  half  of  the  year) Five 

First-year   German    (elective) Five 

First-year  French   (elective) Five 

First-year  Spanish    (elective)    Five 

First-year  Greek  (elective)    Five 

FOURTH  YEAR 

Names  of  Courses  Periods  per  Week 

Rhetoric  (first  half  of  the  year) Three 

Rhetorical  and  Grammatical  Study  of  English  Classics 

(first  half  of  the  year) Two 

(second  half  of  the  year) Three 

Theme  Writing  (second  half  of  the  year) Two 

Plane  Trigonometry  (first  half  of  the  year) Five 

Solid  Geometry,  Spherical  Trigonometry,  or  Bookkeeping 

(second  half  of  the  year) Five 

Chemistry  Five 

United  States  History Five 

First  Six  Books  of  the  Aeneid  (completed)  and  Latin 

Prose  Composition  from  Manual  (first  half  of  the  year)  .  Five 
Ovid's  Metamorphoses  (or  its  equivalent)  and  Latin  Prose 

Composition  from  Manual   (second  half  of  the  year) . .  Five 

50  In  the  junior  high  schools  general  history,  with  special  attention  to 
England,  and  history  and  civil  government  of  Florida  were  to  be  offered 
the  first  half  of  the  year;  and  general  history,  with  special  attention  to 
England,  and  a  review  of  United  States  history,  the  second  half. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


129 


Second-year  German  (elective) Five 

Second-year  French   (elective)    Five 

Second-year   Spanish    (elective) Five 

Second-year  Greek   (elective)    Five 

As  the  law  required,  this  curriculum  was  printed  and  distrib- 
uted among  the  school  officers  and  teachers  throughout  the  State. 
A  part  or  all  of  it  was  at  once  introduced  in  practically  all  the 
public  schools  offering  secondary-school  work.51  The  two-year 
high  schools  adopted  the  first  two  grades;  and  the  four-year 
high  schools,  all  four.52  This  continued  to  be  the  work  offered 
in  the  various  high  schools 'until  1910,  when  the  minimum  re- 
quirements with  reference  to  instruction  for  a  standard  high 
school  were  supplemented  and  amended  by  the  state  board  of 
education.  Two  high-school  curricula  were  formulated,  which 
were  as  follows : 53 


LATIN  CURRICULUM 


First  Year 
English   Grammar 
English    Composition 
English  Classics 
First  Latin  Book 
Algebra    (to  quadratics) 
English  History 

Second  Year 
Rhetoric 

English    Composition 
English  Classics 

Caesar's  Gallic  War  (four  books) 
Algebra  (completed) 
General  History 


Third  Year 
Rhetoric 

English  Literature 
English   Composition 
English  Classics 
Six  Orations  against  Catiline 
Plane  Geometry 
Physics54 

Fourth    Year 
American  Literature 
English  Composition 
English  Classics 
Virgil's  Aeneid  (six  books) 
Plane  Trigonometry 
United  States  History  and  Civics 


51  See   Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.   Ins.,   1902-04,  p.  233 ;  also  Bien. 
Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  p.  13. 

52  This  was  necessary  in  order  to  be  classified  as  standard  junior  and 
senior  high  schools,  respectively,  and  also  in  order  to  receive  aid  from  the 
State    (see  Laws   of  Florida,   1903,   Chap.   5206,   Sec.   10;   and  Laws   of 
Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5382,  Sec.  10). 

53  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  pp.  220-22. 

54  Laboratory  three  periods  per  week. 


130 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


ENGLISH  SCIENTIFIC  CURRICULUM  55 


First  Year 
English   Grammar 
English  Composition 
English  Classics 
Algebra  (to  quadratics) 
Either    Botany    or    Zoology    (or 

both  for  a  term  each) 
English  History 

Second    Year 
Rhetoric 

English  Composition 
English  Classics 
Algebra   (completed) 
Physical  Geography 
General  History 


Third  Year 
Rhetoric 

English  Literature 
English    Composition 
English   Classics 
Plane  Geometry 
Physics54 
Ethics 

Fourth    Year 
American  Literature 
English  Composition 
English  Classics 
Plane    Trigonometry 
Commercial  Arithmetic  and  Book- 
keeping,  or  Physiology 
United  States  History  and  Civics 


One  or  both  of  these  curricula  were  generally  accepted  and 
adopted  by  the  various  four-year  high  schools.56  A  large  per 
cent  of  the  regular  four-year,  or  senior,  high  schools  offered 
both.  However,  the  classical  curriculum  was  the  one  empha- 
sized. In  the  other  four-year  high  schools  the  classical  cur- 
riculum was  the  only  one  usually  offered.  Most  of  the  two-  and 
three-year  high  schools  adopted,  respectively,  the  first  two  and 
three  grades  of  one  or  both  of  the  curricula,  but  they  gave  nearly 
all  their  attention  to  English,  history,  mathematics,  and  Latin. 
Thus  we  see  that  at  that  time  very  little  attention  was  given 
to  science  in  any  of  the  high  schools.  Practically  none  was 
given  to  the  manual  arts,  agriculture,  and  household  economics.57 
But  within  the  last  decade  the  emphasis  has  been  changing  from 
the  old  or  traditional  subjects  to  the  scientific  and  vocational 
ones.  During  this  time,  while  urging  the  high  schools  to  adopt 

55  The  four  years  of  work  in  mathematics  and  English  are  exactly  the 
same  here  as  in  the  Latin  curriculum. 

56  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  St.  High  Sc.  Inspec.,  1910-12,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1910-12,  pp.  229-307. 

57  In  191 1-12  there  were  only  five  high  schools  with  any  form  of  man- 
ual   or    home-economics    work — Manatee,    Pensacola,    Jacksonville,     St. 
Petersburg,  and  Tampa.     Two  of  these  offered  domestic  science  only; 
one,  manual  training;   and   two,  manual  training  and   domestic   science. 
And  there  were  only  nine  maintaining  courses  in  agriculture   (see  Bien. 
Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1910-12,  pp.  247-48). 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 

the  standard  curriculum58  as  the  minimum  work  to  be  offered, 
the  leading  educators  and  school  officers  of  the  State  have  also 
constantly  urged  the  introduction  of  subjects  more  closely  related 
to  life.  As  a  result,  public  high-school  instruction  has  been  con- 
siderably broadened  and  enriched.  More  will  be  said  in  this 
connection  in  the  following  division  on  vocational  education  in 
Chapter  X. 

Present  Secondary-School  Advantages. — As  we  have  just  seen, 
public  secondary  instruction  has  been  both  greatly  extended  and 
improved.  Schools  giving  such  instruction  have  been  established 
in  sections  of  the  State  not  hitherto  supplied  with  any  means  of 
secondary  education;  and  the  advantages  offered  equal,  if  not 
surpass,  those  offered  in  any  of  the  other  states  in  the  South.59 
In  1917-18  there  were  121  public  high  schools  in  operation — 
14  two-year  high  schools,  3  three-year  high  schools,  70  four- 
year  high  schools,  and  34  high  schools  from  which  no  report 
was  received  as  to  the  length  of  the  curriculum  in  years,  but  of 
which  15  were  reported  the  year  before  as  having  a  two-year 
curriculum,  3  a  three-year  curriculum,  and  thirteen  a  four-year 
curriculum.  The  following  year  five  other  high  schools  were 
reported,60 — Chattahoochee,  Enterprise,  George  Washington, 
Umatilla,  and  Woodrow  Wilson,  —  making  a  total  of  126  in  op- 
eration in  1918-19. 

But  we  shall  get  a  better  idea  of  the  secondary-school  advan- 
tages that  are  being  offered  the  youth  by  noticing  the  various 
standards  that  have  been  obtained  by  many  of  the  public  high 
schools.  In  this  connection  we  find  that  there  are  15  schools 

58  Until   the  year   1919  this  was  the  one  which  was  authorized  and 
promulgated  by  provisions  in  Chapter  5206,  Laws  of   1905,  and  supple- 
mented and  amended  by  the  state  board  of  education  in  1910.     But,  as 
we  have  seen  (pp.  118-19),  a  new  standard  high-school  curriculum  was 
formulated  by  the  state  department  of  education  in  1918,  and  prescribed 
for  the  public  high  schools  of  the  State  by  the  legislature  of  1919.     An 
analysis  of  this  curriculum  will  be  given  in  Chapter  X. 

59  See  Bull,  of  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed.,  1916,  No.  20,  pp.  91-94 ;  also  Report  of 
the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Association  of  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  1919. 

60  See  Directory  of  Florida  School  Officers,  High  Schools  and  other 
Educational   Institutions,    1919.     Tallahassee,   Florida:    T.   J.   Appleyard, 
Printer. 


132  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

which  have  met  the  requirements  of  the  state  board  of  education 
for  a  standard  junior  high  school,  9  for  a  standard  intermediate 
high  school,  and  38  for  a  standard  senior  high  school.61  Now, 
the  minimum  requirements  for  a  standard  junior  high  school 
are:62 

ist.     The  term  must  not  be  less  than  8  months,  or  160  days. 

2d.    The  average  daily  attendance  must  not  be  less  than  50  pupils. 

3d.  It  must  have  in  regular  attendance  not  less  than  10  pupils  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  grades. 

4th.  It  must  employ  not  less  than  4  full-time  teachers,  each  legally 
certificated. 

5th.  The  principal  must  hold  a  valid  life-state,  state,  or  first-grade 
certificate  supplemented  by  a  special  certificate  covering  all  the  academic 
subjects  prescribed  in  the  standard  high-school  curriculum  for  the  ninth 
and  tenth  grades. 

6th.  At  least  one  properly  certificated  teacher  must  devote  all  of  his 
or  her  time  to  teaching  the  ninth  and  tenth  grades. 

7th.  The  average  length  of  the  recitation  periods  in  the  two  high- 
school  grades  must  not  be  less  than  40  minutes. 

8th.  All  pupils  in  the  high-school  grades  must  carry  not  less  than  4 
academic  subjects. 

9th.  The  building  must  contain  not  less  than  4  properly  equipped 
recitation  rooms. 

loth.  It  must  have  laboratory  equipment  and  a  well-selected  library, 
each  worth  not  less  than  $100. 

The  minimum  requirements  for  a  standard  intermediate  high 
school  are : 6S 

ist.    The  term  must  not  be  less  than  8  months,  or  160  days. 

2d.    The  average  daily  attendance  must  not  be  less  than  100  pupils. 

3d.  It  must  have  in  regular  attendance  not  less  than  20  pupils  in  the 
ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  grades,  5  of  whom  must  be  in  the  eleventh 
grade. 

4th.  It  must  employ  not  less  than  2  teachers,  exclusive  of  the  prin- 
cipal, each  legally  certificated  and  devoting  all  of  his  or  her  time  to 
teaching  high-school  classes. 

61  Chapter  5206,  Laws  of  1903,  and  Chapter  5382,  Laws  of  1905,  pro- 
vide for  only  two  classes  of  high  schools, — junior  and  senior, — the  former 
including  those  offering  the  first  two  grades  of  the  standard  high-school 
courses  of  study,  and  the  latter  including  those  offering  all  four  grades; 
but   in    1914   the    state   board   of    education    decided    to    authorize    three 
classes, — junior,  intermediate,  and  senior. 

62  See  Florida  Regulations  for  Accrediting  High  Schools,   Regulation 
i ;  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  169-70. 

63  See  Florida  Regulations  for  Accrediting  High  Schools,   Regulation 
2;  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  170-71. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  133 

5th.  Every  teacher  must  hold  a  certificate  covering  the  subjects 
taught. 

6th.  The  principal  must  hold  either  a  life-state  or  state  certificate,  and 
must  not  hear  more  than  4  regular  recitations  a  day. 

7th.  The  average  length  of  the  recitation  periods  in  the  three  high- 
school  grades  must  not  be  less  than  45  minutes. 

8th.  All  pupils  in  the  high-school  grades  must  carry  not  less  than  4 
academic  subjects. 

gth.  The  building  must  contain  not  less  than  7  well-adapted  recitation 
rooms,  all  furnished  with  necessary  teaching  appliances. 

loth.  It  must  have  laboratory  equipment  and  a  well-selected  library, 
each  worth  not  less  than  $150. 

The  minimum  requirements  for  a  standard  senior  high  school 
are:64 

ist.    The  term  must  not  be  less  than  8  months,  or  160  days. 

2d.    The  average  daily  attendance  must  not  be  less  than  150  pupils. 

3d.  It  must  have  in  regular  attendance  not  less  than  30  pupils  in  the 
four  high-school  grades,  10  of  whom  must  be  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
grades. 

4th.  It  must  employ  not  less  than  3  teachers,  exclusive  of  the  prin- 
cipal, each  legally  certificated  and  devoting  all  of  his  or  her  time  to 
teaching  high-school  classes. 

5th.    Every  teacher  must  hold  a  certificate  covering  the  subjects  taught. 

6th.  The  principal  must  hold  either  a  life-state  or  state  certificate, 
and  must  not  hear  more  than  3  regular  recitations  a  day. 

7th.  The  average  length  of  the  recitation  periods  in  all  high-school 
grades  must  not  be  less  than  45  minutes. 

8th.  All  pupils  in  the  high-school  grades  must  carry  not  less  than  4 
academic  subjects. 

9th.  The  building  must  contain  not  less  than  8  well-adapted  recitation 
rooms,  all  furnished  with  necessary  teaching  appliances. 

loth.  It  must  have  laboratory  equipment  and  a  well-selected  library, 
each  worth  not  less  than  $200. 

The  schools  which  have  met  these  various  requirements  and 
were  accredited  by  the  state  department  of  education  May  i,  1919, 
together  with  their  location  and  the  name  of  their  principal, 
are  as  follows : 65 

64  See  Florida  Regulations  for  Accrediting  High  Schools,  Regulation 
3;  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  171. 

65  See  Directory  of  Florida  School  Officers,  High  Schools  and  other 
Educational  Institutions,   1919. 


134 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


STANDARD  JUNIOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Name   of  School 

Town 

County 

Sherwin 

Millville 

Bay 

Cocoanut  Grove 

Cocoanut  Grove 

Dade 

Bowling  Green 

Bowling  Green 

DeSoto 

Chattahoochee 

Chattahoochee 

Gadsden 

Havana 

Havana 

Gadsden 

Greensboro 

Greensboro 

Gadsden 

Jasper 

Jasper 

Hamilton 

Woodrow  Wilson 

Tampa 

Hillsborough 

George  Washington 

Tampa 

Hillsborough 

Umatilla 

Umatilla 

Lake 

Williston 

Williston 

Levy 

Winter  Park 

Winter  Park 

Orange 

Del  ray 

Delray 

Palm  Beach 

Frostproof 

Frostproof 

Polk 

Enterprise 

Enterprise 

Volusia 

Principal 
R.  L.  Hosford 
A.  L.  Isaac 
J.  N.   Overhultz 
Miss  Lucile  Weaver 
E.  L.  Shuler 
Miss   Farris  Davis 
J.  M.  Guilliams 
Robert  M.  Ray 
D.  M.  Cook 
W.  C.  Finney 
J.   A.  Osteen 
M.  J.  Okerlund 
J.  E.   McKean 
W.  O.  Smith 
Mrs.  Marie  R.  Jones 


STANDARD  INTERMEDIATE  HIGH   SCHOOLS 


Name  of  School 

Town 

County 

Principal 

Alachua 

Alachua 

Alachua 

L.  Golden 

Lake  Butler 

Lake  Butler 

Bradford 

R.  H.  Terry 

Avon   Park 

Avon  Park 

DeSoto 

J.  G.  Malphurs 

Sebring 

Sebring 

DeSoto 

E.  McCulley 

Mayo 

Mayo 

Lafayette 

J.  H.  George 

Okeechobee  County 

Okeechobee 

Okeechobee 

W.  R.  Terrell 

St.  Cloud 

St.  Cloud 

Osceola 

N.  H.  Bullard 

Taylor  County 

Perry 

Taylor 

A.   E.   Riley 

Seabreeze 

Seabreeze 

Volusia 

H.  E.  Wakefield 

STANDARD  SENIOR 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Name  of  School 

Town 

County 

Principal 

Gainesville 

Gainesville 

Alachua 

F.  W.  Buchholz 

Cocoa 

Cocoa 

Brevard 

R.  L.  French 

Ft.   Lauderdale 

Ft.  Lauderdale 

Broward 

B.  B.  Lane 

Columbia  County 

Lake   City 

Columbia 

W.  H.  Stephens 

Miami 

Miami 

Dade 

J.   H.  Workman 

DeSoto  County 

Arcadia 

DeSoto 

W.  N.  Henderson 

Pensacola 

Pensacola 

Escambia 

J.  M.  Collier 

Gadsden  County 

Quincy 

Gadsden 

J.  A.  Youngblood 

Hillsborough  County 

Tampa 

Hillsborough 

E.  L.  Robinson 

Plant   City 

Plant  City 

Hillsborough 

S.  L.  Woodward 

Jackson  County 

Marianna 

Jackson 

T.  H.  Campbell 

Leesburg 

Leesburg 

Lake 

S.  A.  Draper 

Gwynne 

Ft.  Myers 

Lee 

W.  E.  Sawyer 

Leon  County 

Tallahassee 

Leon 

R.  M.  Sealey 

Madison 

Madison 

Madison 

W.  B.  Cate 

THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


135 


Manatee  County 

Bradentown             Manatee 

Sarasota 

Sarasota                  Manatee 

Palmetto 

Palmetto                  Manatee 

Ocala 

Ocala                       Marion 

Orlando 

Orlando                   Orange 

Osceola  County 

Kissimmee               Osceola 

Palm   Beach 

West  Palm  Beach   Palm  Beach 

Pasco  County 

Dade    City              Pasco 

Tarpon   Springs 

Tarpon   Springs      Pinellas 

Lakeland 

Lakeland                 Polk 

Ft.  Meade 

Ft.  Meade               Polk 

Summerlin  Institute 

Bartow                     Polk 

Mulberry 

Mulberry  *•             Polk 

Winter  Haven 

Winter   Haven       Polk 

Putnam  County 

Palatka                    Putnam 

St.  Augustine 

St.   Augustine         St.  Johns 

St.  Lucie  County 

Ft.  Pierce                St.  Lucie 

Sanford 

Sanford                    Seminole 

Suwannee  County 

Live  Oak                Suwannee 

DeLand 

DeLand                   Volusia 

Daytona 

Daytona                  Volusia 

New   Smyrna 

New  Smyrna          Volusia 

Walton    County 

DeFuniak  Springs  Walton 

J.  E.  Ricketson 
E.  L.  Beeson 

A.  H.  Flowers 
W.  H.  Cassels 
J.  W.  Simmons 
R.  M.  Evans 

B.  H.  Gault 

R.  W.  VanBrunt 
G.  V.  Fuguitt 
Chas.  M.  Jones 
G.  H.  Williams 

A.  B.  Connor 

T.  W.  Yarbrough 

C.  E.  Kensinger 
M.   P.   Geiger 
W.  E.  Knibloe 
L.  E.  Bennett 
Jno.  F.  McKinnon 
H.  G.  Metcalf 

B.  F.  Ezell 

J.    F.    Eastham 
H.  B.  Craven 
W.  T.  Tiller 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  62  high  schools  which  have  already 
been  accredited  as  standard  high  schools  by  the  state  department 
of  education,  we  find  that  most  of  the  others  do  excellent  work, 
but  that  they  fail  to  comply  with  all  the  requirements  which 
would  entitle  them  to  accreditation,  their  chief  failure  being  that 
of  observing  the  law  and  the  regulation  requiring  every  teacher 
to  hold  a  valid  Florida  certificate  covering  the  subjects  taught.68 
About  half  of  the  non-standard  high  schools  lack  just  a  little 
of  meeting  the  requirements  for  a  standard  senior  high  school.67 
Many  of  these  four-year  non-standard  high  schools  are  among 
the  very  best  in  the  State,  their  graduates  being  admitted,  with- 
out examination,  to  any  of  the  schools  or  departments  of  both 
the  University  of  Florida  and  the  Florida  State  College  for 
Women ; 68  and  some  of  them  are  also  among  the  best  in  the 

66  See  Directory  of  Florida  School  Officers,  High  Schools  and  other 
Educational  Institutions,  1919. 

67  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  St.  High  Sc.  Inspec.,  1916-18,  in  Bien.   Rep.  of 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  175-345. 

68  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  pp.  180-82 ;  and  Bull, 
of  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed.,  1916,  No.  20,  p.  20. 


136  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

South,  being  recognized  as  standard  high  schools  by  the  Com- 
mission on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern  States.69 

Furthermore,  we  find  that  32  of  the  126  public  high  schools 
of  the  State  have  attained  such  high  merit  that  they  have  been 
placed  on  the  list  of  standard  secondary  schools  by  the  Com- 
mission on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern  States.69  This  com- 
mission is  composed  of  thirty-nine  representative  Southern  edu- 
cators, three  from  each  of  the  following  states:  Alabama, 
Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Virginia,  and 
West  Virginia.  Its  main  purpose  is  to  standardize  the  secondary 
schools  of  the  South.  It  meets  annually  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sidering a  revision  of  its  regulations,  for  the  consideration  of 
applications  for  accreditation  from  the  secondary  schools  of  the 
different  states,  and  for  the  purpose  of  providing  for  the  pub- 
lication and  distribution  of  the  accredited  list.  To  get  on  this 
list  a  school  must  meet  each  of  the  following  minimum  re- 
quirements : 70 

1st.  It  must  require  for  graduation  the  completion  of  a  four-year 
high-school  curriculum  embracing  fourteen  standard  units. 

2d.  The  scholastic  attainment  of  three-fourths  of  the  teachers  of 
academic  subjects  must  be  equivalent  to  graduation  from  a  college  be- 
longing to  the  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the 
Southern  States,  or  a  college  approved  by  the  commission. 

3d.  No  teacher  should  hear  more  than  five  recitations  a  day,  schools 
in  which  teachers  hear  as  many  as  six  being  inspected  by  the  commission 
with  extreme  care. 

4th.  It  must  have  library  and  laboratory  facilities  adequate  for  the 
needs  of  instruction. 

5th.  Its  environment  and  equipment  must  be  such  as  to  insure  hy- 
gienic conditions  for  the  pupils  and  teachers. 

6th.  It  must  rank  well  in  efficiency  of  instruction,  acquired  habits  of 
thought  and  speech,  and  general  intellectual  and  moral  tone,  as  evidenced 
by  rigid  thorough-going,  sympathetic  inspection. 

69  See  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Asso- 
ciation of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  1919, 
p.  7- 

70  See  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  Colleges  and  Secondary   Schools  of  the  Southern  States,   1919, 
PP.   15-17. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


137 


7th.  It  must  employ  not  less  than  three  teachers  who  devote  all  their 
time  to  high-school  instruction. 

8th.  It  must  fill  out  the  regular  annual  application  blank  furnished  for 
that  purpose.  In  case  of  schools  with  twelve  or  more  teachers,  a  com- 
plete report  on  teachers  once  every  three  years  will  be  sufficient,  but 
full  data  as  to  changes  must  be  given  annually. 

pth.    It  must  have  not  more  than  thirty  pupils  per  teacher. 

Schools  meeting  these  requirements  are  recognized  by  school 
authorities  throughout  the  South  as  standard  secondary  schools, 
and  graduates  of  these  schools  are  given  full  credit  for  the  work 
they  have  done,  not  only  in  all  the  higher  educational  institutions 
of  the  South,  but  also  in  some  of  the  strongest  of  the  North. 
The  public  high  schools  of  Florida  which  have  met  these  re- 
quirements and  were  accredited  by  the  commission  January,  1919, 
together  with  their  location  and  the  name  of  their  principal, 
are  as  follows:71 


PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  SOUTHERN  ACCREDITED  LIST 

Principal 

W.  N.  Henderson 
J.  B.  Ricketson 
J.  I.  Reese 
J.  F.  Eastham 
W.  T.  Tiller 
B.  F.  Ezell 
B.  B.  Lane 
G.   H.   Williams 
W.  E.  Sawyer 
L.  E.   Bennett 
F.  W.  Buchholz 
R.  M.  Evans 
Chas.    M.   Jones 
A.  W.  Hayes 
S.  A.  Draper 
H.  G.  Metcalf 
J.  H.  Workman 
H.  B.  Craven 
W.   H.  Cassels 
M.   P.   Geiger 
A.   H.  Flowers 
J.  M.  Collier 
S.  L.  Woodward 

71  Ibid.,  p.  7. 


Name  of  School 

Town 

County 

DeSoto    County 

Arcadia 

DeSoto 

Manatee  County 

Bradentown 

Manatee 

Clearwater 

Clearwater 

Pinellas 

Hay  ton  a 

Day  ton  a 

Volusia 

Walton  County 

DeFuniak  Springs 

Walton 

DeLand 

DeLand 

Volusia 

Ft.  Lauderdale 

Ft.  Lauderdale 

Broward 

Ft.   Meade 

Ft.  Meade 

Polk 

G  wynne 

Ft.  Myers 

Lee 

St.  Lucie   County 

Ft,  Pierce 

St.  Lucie 

Gainesville 

Gainesville 

Alachua 

Osceola  County 

Kissimmee 

Osceola 

Lakeland 

Lakeland 

Polk 

Largo 

Largo 

Pinellas 

Leesburg 

Leesburg 

Lake 

Suwannee  County 

Live  Oak 

Suwannee 

Miami 

Miami 

Dade 

New  Smyrna 

New  Smyrna 

Volusia 

Ocala 

Ocala 

Marion 

Putnam  County 

Palatka 

Putnam 

Palmetto 

Palmetto 

Manatee 

Pensacola 

Pensacola 

Escambia 

Plant  City 

Plant  City 

Hillsborough 

138 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


Gadsden    County 
St.  Petersburg 
Sanford 
Sarasota 
Leon  County 
Hillsborough  County 
Tarpon  Springs 
Wauchula 
Palm  Beach 


Quincy 

St.    Petersburg 

Sanford 

Sarasota 

Tallahassee 

Tampa 

Tarpon   Springs 

Wauchula 

West  Palm  Beach 


Gadsden 

Pinellas 

Seminole 

Manatee 

Leon 

Hillsborough 

Pinellas 

DeSoto 

Palm  Beach 


J.  A.  Youngblood 
Earle   C.   Case 
Jno.  F.  McKinnon 
E.  L.  Beeson 
R.  M.  Sealey 
E.   L.   Robinson 
G.  V.  Fuguitt 
D.  B.  Shaver 
B.  H.  Gault 


To  repeat,  in  providing  secondary-school  advantages  for  her 
young  people  Florida  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  state  in 
the  South.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  she  has  on 
the  Southern  accredited  list  more  public  high  schools  than  any 
other  state  in  the  South,  excepting  Georgia,  Texas,  and  West 
Virginia,  and  that  she  has,  in  proportion  to  her  population,  more 

TABLE   XVI 

NUMBER  OF  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  SOUTHERN  ACCREDITED  LIST  IN 
EACH  OF  THE  STATES   (1919) 


States 

Total 
number0 

Number  per 
100,000  people6 

Florida  ... 

•2.2 

3.20 

West  Virginia  

47 

2.98 

Georgia  .... 

41 

.40 

Texas  

61 

.36 

South  Carolina  

18 

.08 

Kentucky  

26 

•07 

Virginia 

24 

07 

Arkansas 

17 

.06 

Louisiana 

j  i 

.8^ 

North  Carolina 

21 

.85 

Alabama 

10 

.71 

Mississippi 

I? 

.60 

Tennessee 

14 

.60 

0  See  Report  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Association  of 
Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  1919;  and  Bull,  of  U.  S. 
Bu.  of  Ed.,  1916,  No.  20,  pp.  91-94. 

6  Based  on  estimates  by  the  United  States  census  bureau  for  1918. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  139 

than  these,  even,  and   far  more  than  any  of  the  others,  as  is 
shown  by  the  foregoing  table. 

SUMMARY 

Since  1892  there  has  been  marked  progress  in  public  elementary 
and  high-school  education  in  Florida.  For  example,  elementary 
instruction  has  been  greatly  extended.  The  enrollment  in  the 
common  schools  has  increased  from  less  than  10x3,000  to  more 
than  225,000;  the  average  daily  attendance,  from  a  little  over 
60,000  to  almost  166,000;  and  the  average  length  of  the  school 
term  in  days,  from  about  100  to  133.  In  this  connection  the 
following  means  have  been  quite  helpful:  compulsory  school- 
attendance,  educational  campaigns,  school-improvement  associa- 
tions, better  and  more  adequate  school  buildings,  grounds,  equip- 
ment and  teachers,  and  the  transportation  of  pupils  to  and  from 
school  at  public  expense,  But  in  addition  to  the  improvement  in 
the  enrollment,  attendance,  and  length  of  term,  the  common- 
school  curricula,  also,  have  been  considerably  improved,  the 
courses  offered  having  been  both  increased  and  enriched. 

The  progress  made  in  public  high-school  education,  however, 
has  been  still  more  noticeable.  The  number  of  pupils  has  in- 
creased from  less  than  700  to  more  than  7,000.  The  means  used 
in  effecting  this  increase  have  been,  for  the  most  part,  the  pro- 
vision of  more  adequate  and  suitable  school  plants  and  the  em- 
ployment of  a  larger  and  more  efficient  teaching  staff.  The 
courses  of  study,  too,  have  been  greatly  improved,  both  in  quan- 
tity and  quality.  In  fact,  the  State  has  made  such  rapid  progress 
in  all  phases  of  high-school  education  that  the  advantages  now 
offered  equal,  if  not  surpass,  those  offered  by  any  other  Southern 
state. 


CHAPTER    VII 
THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  A  WAKENING-  Continued 

C.  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

The  Extension  of  Vocational  Education. — The  term  "  voca- 
tional education "  is  here  used  to  indicate  the  types  of  work 
included  in  the  general  field  of  industrial  education,  home  eco- 
nomics, and  agricultural  and  commercial  pursuits.  Now,  at 
first  —  that  is,  in  the  nineties  —  very  little  was  done  in  the  way 
of  providing  instruction  and  training  in  any  of  these  fields  in 
either  the  public  elementary  or  secondary  schools.  Some  in- 
struction in  the  elements  of  bookkeeping  and  agriculture  was 
offered  in  a  few  of  the  best  elementary  schools,  and  a  com- 
mercial department  seems  to  have  been  established  in  some  of 
the  leading  high  schools ; *  but  this  is  practically  all  that  was 
done  until  about  the  year  1900.  About  that  time  the  St.  Peters- 
burg Normal  and  Industrial  School  —  one  of  the  best  public 
schools  in  the  State  —  was  established.2  From  the  first,  excel- 
lent home-economics  and  industrial  departments  were  maintained. 
But  for  several  years  this  was  the  only  public  school  which 
offered  work  along  these  two  lines.3  Gradually,  however,  the 
people  awoke  to  the  necessity  of  vocational  education;  and  so 
courses  in  these  two  vocational  fields,  and  also  in  agriculture 
and  the  commercial  subjects,  began  to  be  inaugurated  in  both 
the  grammar  and  high-school  grades  of  the  public  schools.  Dur- 
ing the  last  decade  no  little  progress  has  been  made  in  this 
direction.  The  number  of  schools  offering  such  courses  and  also 
the  number  of  students  enrolled  therein  have  both  greatly 
increased. 

Commercial  Departments. — For  a  good  many  years  the  com- 
mercial subjects  have  been  looked  upon  rather  favorably  by  both 

!See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1894-95,  II,  2223;  also  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1896-98,  pp.  365  and  405. 

2  See  Bien.   Rep.   of  Supt.  of   Pub.   Ins.,    i89&-i9oo,  pp.  315-19;    and 
Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  pp.  168  and  195-99. 

3  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  p.  20. 

140 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  141 

the  patrons  and  the  school  officers.  Consequently,  they  have  had 
more  or  less  attention  in  the  public  schools,  especially  in  the 
high  schools.  But  at  first  only  elementary  bookkeeping  was 
offered,  and  this  only  in  the  leading  schools.  Later,  however, 
other  subjects  were  introduced.  Within  the  last  decade  a  reg- 
ular commercial  department  has  been  established  in  a  number  of 
the  high  schools,  and  some  excellent  work  has  been  done.  In 
1915-16  thirteen  of  these  schools  were  reported  as  having  321 
students  in  their  commercial  courses.4 

Commercial  Courses  of  Study. — Outside  of  the  elementary 
principles  of  bookkeeping,  vefy  little  commercial  instruction  has 
been  offered  in  any  of  the  elementary  schools.  Commercial 
courses  of  a  definite  vocational  character  have  been  confined  to 
the  high  schools.  No  uniform  curriculum  has  been  followed 
by  the  various  schools,  but  the  one  here  given  represents  fairly 
well  the  commercial  work  usually  offered.5 

TYPICAL  COMMERCIAL  CURRICULUM 
First  Year  Second    Year 

Business   English  Business   English 

Spelling  Correspondence 

Penmanship  Spelling 

Commercial   Arithmetic  Penmanship 

Shorthand  Commercial  Arithmetic 

Touch  Typewriting  Touch  Typewriting 

Commercial  Law  Bookkeeping 

Departments  of  Industrial  Education. — The  term  "industrial 
education  "  is  here  used  to  denote  the  field  of  vocational  educa- 
tion which  has  for  its  object  industrial  advancement.  It  includes 
drawing  and  designing,  manual  training,  applied  art,  and  any 
kind  of  shop  work  that  will  help  to  meet  the  needs  of  manual 
workers  in  the  trades  and  industries.  The  first  school  to  give 
instruction  in  any  of  these  industrial  subjects  was  the  high  school 
at  St.  Petersburg,  formerly  known  as  the  St.  Petersburg  Normal 
and  Industrial  Institute.6  This  was  the  only  school  in  which 

4  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  514. 

5  For  this  curriculum  see  Course  of  Study  and  Rules  and  Regulations 
Adopted  by  the  Board  of  Public   Instruction   of  Dade   County,   Florida, 
September  2,  1913,  pp.  16-17. 

6  See  page  181. 


142  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

such  instruction  was  given  until  about  1908,  when  it  began 
to  be  offered  by  other  schools  in  the  State.7  Since  then  the 
number  of  schools  maintaining  one  or  more  industrial  features 
has  considerably  increased.  In  1915—16  10  of  these  schools  were 
reported  as  having  337  students  in  their  industrial  courses.8  In 
1916-17  and  1917-18  quite  a  number  of  other  schools  were  re- 
ported as  offering  instruction  and  training  in  industrial  work.9 
This  increase  has  been  due,  to  some  extent,  to  the  vocational- 
education  law10  assenting  to  and  accepting  the  provisions  of  the 
Smith-Hughes  Act.11  The  principal  schools  which  were  reported 
as  providing  for  some  phase  of  industrial  education  in  1917-18, 
together  with  their  location,  are  as  follows : 12 

PRINCIPAL  SCHOOLS  MAINTAINING  INDUSTRIAL  COURSES   (1917-18) 

Name  of  School  Town  County 

Avon  Park  Avon  Park  DeSoto 

Clearwater  Clearwater  Pinellas 

D-aytona  Daytona  Volusia 

DeLand  DeLand  Volusia 

Delray  Delray  Palm  Beach 

Duval13  Jacksonville  Duval 

Gonzalez14  Gonzalez  Escambia 

Homestead  Homestead  Dade 

7  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  p.  20;  also  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  p.  80. 

8  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  514. 

9  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  251-60,  291-300, 
562,  569,  590,  593,  601,  619,  639,  692,  and  713. 

10  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7376. 

11  An  act  of  Congress  approved  February  23,  1917. 

12  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  251-60,  291-300, 
562,  593,  601,  713,  and  776;  also  An.  Rep.  of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919, 
I,  119  and  219. 

All  these  schools  are  excellent  high  schools,  most  of  them  being  on 
one,  or  both,  of  the  state  and  Southern  accredited  lists. 

13  In  addition  to  the  regular  day  classes,  a  few  evening  classes,  with 
a  total  enrollment  of  22,  were  conducted  in  connection  with  the   ship- 
building  industry    and   building   trades    in    Jacksonville.     The    following 
year   (1918-19)   there  were  13  separate  classes,  with  a  total  enrollment 
of  446.    The  work  was  organized  on  the  basis  of  short  unit  courses.    It 
was  supported  by  the  State -and  the  Smith-Hughes  Fund. 

14  Also  known  as  the  J.  M.  Tate  Agricultural  School. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  143 

Largo  Largo  Pinellas 

Lemon  City  Lemon  City  Bade 

Jackson   County  Marianna  Jackson 

Milton  Milton  Santa  Rosa 

Plant  City  Plant  City  Hillsborough 

Safety  Harbor  Safety  Harbor  Pinellas 

Starke  Starke  Bradford 

Seabreeze  Seabreeze  Volusia 

St.  Petersburg  St.  Petersburg  Pinellas 

St.  Augustine          .          St.  Augustine  St.  Johns 

Wauchula  Wauchula  DeSoto 

Palm  Beach  West  Palm  Beach  Palm  Beach 

Industrial  Courses  of  Study. — In  the  primary  and  intermediate, 
or  first  six,  grades  the  courses  of  instruction  have  been  general 
in  character,  and  taught  by  the  regular  teachers.  But  in  the 
grammar  and  high-school  grades  the  instruction  has  usually  been 
somewhat  prevocational  and  vocational,  respectively,  and  taught 
by  special  teachers.  The  following  brief  outline  indicates  fairly 
well  the  instruction  and  training  that  have  usually  been  given 
in  the  different  industrial  departments : 15 

Seventh  Grade:  Shop  talks;  pencil  drawings  of  problems  to  be  ex- 
ecuted in  wood ;  and  simple  bench  work. 

Eighth  Grade:  Continuation  of  work  in  seventh  grade. 

Ninth  Grade :  Shop  talks ;  simple  constructive  drawing ;  wood-turning 
of  simple  articles  of  useful  value  and  band-sawing  of  simple  scroll 
work;  and  execution  of  problems  dealing  with  joinery  work. 

Tenth  Grade:  Shop  talks;  careful  drawing  of  all  articles  to  be  made; 
continuation  of  ninth-grade  wood-turning  and  band-sawing  work;  and 
cabinet-making. 

Eleventh  Grade:  Shop  talks;  freehand  and  mechanical  lettering  and 
drawing;  wood-turning  of  such  object's  as  table  legs,  pedestals,  etc.,  and 
band-sawing  of  fancy!  scroll  work;  and  continuation  of  tenth-grade 
cabinet-making. 

Twelfth  Grade:  Shop  talks;  constructive  drawing  continued;  wood- 
turning  and  band-sawing  in  several  branches;  and  fine  cabinet  work. 

Departments  of  Home  Economics. — The  term  "home  eco- 
nomics "  is  here  used  to  denote  the  field  of  vocational  education 
designed  to  bring  about  better  living  conditions  in  the  home.  It 

15  See  the  outlined  courses  of  study  issued  by  the  county  boards  of 
public  instruction. 


144  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

includes  sewing,  cooking,  laundering,  sanitation,  nursing,  house- 
planning,  house-furnishing,  and,  in  fact,  instruction  and  training 
in  any  subject  related  to  the  general  problem  of  home-mak- 
ing and  home-keeping.  As  in  the  case  of  industrial  education, 
the  first  school  to  inaugurate  such  a  department  was  the  high 
school  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  IQOO.16  This  was  the  only  school 
in  which  a  department  of  home  economics  was  maintained 
until  about  1908,  when  such  a  department  was  inaugurated  by 
two  schools  in  Tampa.17  Since  then  the  number  of  schools 
offering  instruction  and  training  in  one  or  more  subjects  of 
home  economics  has  considerably  increased.  In  1915-16  there 
were  18  schools  reported  as  maintaining  a  home-economics  de- 
partment, the  total  enrollment  in  these  departments  being  596.18 
In  1916-17  and  1917-18  quite  a  number  of  other  schools  were 
reported  as  maintaining  such  a  department.19  In  addition,  there 
were  several  counties  in  which  a  home-demonstration  agent 
was  employed  to  conduct  practical  demonstration  work  in  home 
economics,  not  only  for  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  schools,  but 
also  for  the  adults  in  the  various  localities.20  This  increase 
of  attention  to  this  phase  of  vocational  education  has  been  due, 
partly  to  the  vocational-education  law  mentioned  above,21  and 
partly  to  a  law  passed  in  191 5,22  which  empowers  the  school  board 
for  any  county  and  the  board  of  trustees  for  any  special-tax 
school-district  to  establish  and  maintain  a  department  of  home 
economics  in  any  of  the  high  schools  over  which  they  have 
jurisdiction,  and  empowers  the  school  board  for  any  county  also 
to  employ  a  county  agent  to  give  practical  demonstration  work 
in  home  economics  and  to  aid  the  county  superintendent  and 
teachers  in  giving  practical  education  along  this  line.  In  1917-18 
thirteen  counties  were  reported  as  having  such  an  agent : 20 

16  See  page  140. 

17  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  p.  20;  also  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  p.  80. 

18  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  515. 

19  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,   1916-18,  pp.  251-60,  291-300, 
562,  569,  590,  593,  599,  619,  627,  639,  646,  673,  692,  737,  751,  763,  and  768. 

20  Ibid.,  pp.  562,  578,  590,  594,  705,  710,  714,  719,  723,  740,  752,  763,  and 
768. 

21  See  page  142. 

22  See  Laws  of  Florida,  Chap.  6833. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


145 


Bradford,  Clay,  DeSoto,  Duval,  Polk,  Putnam,  St.  Johns,  St. 
Lucie,  Santa  Rosa,  Taylor,  Volusia,  Walton,  and  Washington. 
The  principal  schools  reported  as  making  provision  for  home- 
economics  courses,  together  with  their  location,  are  the  follow- 


ing: 


PRINCIPAL  SCHOOLS  WITH  HOME-ECONOMICS  COURSES  (1917-18) 


Town  County 

Alva  Lee 

Avon  Park  DeSoto 

Boynton  Palm  Beach 

Bu&hnell  Sumter 

Chipley  Washington 

Clearwater  Pinellas 

Daytona  Pinellas 

DeLand  Volusia 

Ft.  Lauderdale  Broward 

Quincy  Gadsden 

Homestead  Dade 

Inverness  Citrus 

Marianna  Jackson 

Lakeland  Polk 

Largo  Pinellas 

Leesburg  Lake 

Lemon  City  Dade 

Tallahassee  Leon 

Bradentown  Manatee 

Milton  Santa  Rosa 

Montverde  Lake 

Mulberry  Polk 

Ocala  Marion 

Orlando  Orange 

Kissimmee  Osceola 

West  Palm  Beach  Palm  Beach 

Dade  City  Pasco 

Pensacola  Escambia 

Punta  Gorda  DeSoto 

Palatka  Putnam 

23  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  251-60,  291-300, 
593,  599,  627,  639,  646,  673,  763,  768,  776,  and  886. 

24  One  of  the  four  schools  designated  by  the  state  board  in  1917  to 
receive  aid  from  the  State  and  the   Smith-Hughes  Fund  in  paying  the 
salary  of  the  teacher  of  home  economics. 

25  In  1918  this  school  was  added  to  the  list  of  schools  to  be  aided  by 
the  State  and  the  Smith-Hughes  Fund  in  paying  the  salary  of  the  home- 
economics  teacher. 


Name  of  School 

Alva 

Avon  Park 

Boynton 

Bushnell24 

Chipley 

Clearwater 

Daytona 

DeLand2* 

Ft.  Lauderdale 

Gadsden  County 

Homestead 

Inverness 

Jackson  County24 

Lakeland 

Largo 

Leesburg 

Lemon  City 

Leon  County25 

Manatee  County 

Milton 

Montverde 

Mulberry 

Ocala 

Orlando 

Osceola  County 

Palm  Beach 

Pasco  County 

Pensacola 

Punta  Gorda 

Putnam  County 


146  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

St.   Petersburg  St.  Petersburg  Pinellas 

Safety  Harbor  Safety   Harbor  Pinellas 

Seabreeze  Seabreeze  Volusia 

Summerlin    Institute  Bartow  Polk 

Umatilla  Umatilla  Lake 

Walton  County  DeFuniak  Springs  Walton 

Wauchula  Wauchula  DeSoto 

Williston2*  Williston  Levy 

Winter  Haven  Winter   Haven  Polk 

Zellwood  Zellwood  Orange 

Courses  of  Study  in  Home  Economics. — Until  very  recently  the 
courses  of  study  have  usually  been  limited  to  only  a  few  prob- 
lems in  cooking  and  sewing.  This  has  been  due  very  largely  to 
the  lack  of  proper  community  support,  competent  teachers,  and 
suitable  equipment.  But  with  the  overcoming  of  these  limita- 
tions the  courses  have  been  made  much  broader.  In  most  of 
the  schools  maintaining  a  home-economics  department  attention 
is  given,  not  only  to  cooking  and  sewing,  but  also  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  nutrition,  the  planning  of  meals,  the  composition  and 
manufacure  of  various  foods,  and  other  subjects  having  as  their 
object  the  betterment  of  living  conditions  in  the  home.  Such 
instruction  is  usually  given  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  grades;  and  about  one  and  a  half  hours  per  week  are 
devoted  to  it.  In  some  schools,  however,  more  advanced  courses 
are  offered  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades,  also,  such  courses 
being  designed  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  and  for  those 
who  desire  to  become  proficient  in  the  household  sciences  and 
arts.  The  following  group  of  subjects  is  rather  typical  of  what 
has  been  offered  in  the  various  departments  of  home  economics : 26 

Seventh  Grade:  The  production  and  use  of  foods;  the  preparation  and 
serving  of  foods ;  easy  sewing  such  as  hemming  towels,  darning  stock- 
ings, patching  muslin  and  gingham,  making  aprons,  and  so  forth. 

Eighth  Grade:  Principles  of  food  preparation;  selecting  and  preparing 
foods;  planning  and  serving  meals,  and  computing  their  cost;  mending 
real  articles;  and  cutting,  making,  and  fitting  a  few  simple  garments. 

Ninth  Grade:  Continuation  of  work  begun  in  the  grammar  grades  in 
regard  to  foods;  principles  of  nutrition;  dressmaking;  and  household 
furnishing. 

26  See  outlined  courses  of  study  issued  by  the  county  boards  of  public 
instruction. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  147 

Tenth  Grade:  Nutrition  work  of  ninth  grade  continued;  the  composi- 
tion and  manufacture  of  various  foods ;  dressmaking ;  and  household 
management. 

Eleventh  Grade:  Preserving  and  jelly-making;  the  growth  and  effect 
of  bacteria  in  foods;  household  sanitation;  dressmaking;  household 
furnishing;  and  a  study  of  the  principal  textile  fibres. 

Twelfth  Grade:  Nutrition  and  dietetics;  millinery;  renovating  old 
materials;  preparing  clothing  budgets;  and  making  graduating  dress. 

Agricultural  Departments. — Until  quite  recently  agriculture 
has  been  regarded  with  absolute  indifference  and  even  studied 
neglect  by  the  local  school  authorities  and  public-school  teachers. 
As  we  have  seen,27  a  law  wag  passed  in  1903,  and  re-enacted  in 
1905,  requiring  the  teachers  to  offer  such  lessons  in  agriculture 
as  were  provided  for  in  the  county  courses  of  study.  But  it 
seems  that  nothing  was  done  by  the  county  boards  of  education 
in  the  way  of  providing  for  any  agricultural  instruction  until 
1909,28  when  a  law  was  passed  making  the  elementary  principles 
of  agriculture  a  prescribed  subject  of  study  for  all  the  common 
schools,  and  requiring  the  school  boards  to  provide  for  a  course 
in  this  subject  and  to  see  that  it  was  taught  by  the  teachers 
of  their  respective  counties  as  thoroughly  as  any  other  prescribed 
branch.  Since  then  agriculture  has  been  gaining  a  permanent 
and  important  place  in  the  public-school  curriculums.  Not  only 
has  a  course  in  the  elements  of  agriculture  been  introduced  in 
practically  all  the  common  schools,  but  a  regular  agricultural 
(Jepartment  has  been  inaugurated  in  several  of  the  high  schools. 
In  1915-16  there  were  12  schools  reported  as  having  a  depart- 
ment of  agriculture,  the  average  enrollment  in  these  departments 
being  24.29  Since  then  other  schools  have  been  added  to  the 
list,80  this  increase  being  largely  due  to  the  vocational-education 
law  already  referred  to,31  and  to  a  law  passed  two  years  before,32 
which  authorizes  the  county  boards*  of  education  and  the  boards 
of  trustees  for  the  special-tax  school-districts  to  establish  and 

27  See  page  119. 

28  See  page  120. 

20  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  515. 

30  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,   1916-18,  pp.  251-60,  291-300, 
562,  585,  601,  627,  639,  653*  685,  692,  776-77,  and  884-86;  also  An.  Rep. 
of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919,  I,  118. 

31  See  page  142. 

32  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6833. 


148  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

maintain  a  department  of  agriculture  in  any  of  the  high  schools 
under  their  control.33  Also,  several  counties  of  the  State  have 
been  reported34  as  employing,  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  I9I5,35 
one  or  more  county  agents  to  conduct  practical  demonstration 
work  in  agriculture  and  to  aid  the  county  superintendent  and 
teachers  in  giving  instruction  along  this  line.36  As  a  rule,  the 
work  of  these  agricultural  departments  and  demonstration 
agents  has  met  with  the  hearty  approval  of  the  people  of  the 
State,  as  is  shown  by  their  willingness  to  support  it.37  In  view 
of  this  loyalty  and  appreciation,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
a  state  director  for  vocational  education  and  a  full-time  state 
supervisor  of  agriculture  have  been  provided  for,37  it  is  quite 
likely  that  a  much  larger  number  of  the  schools  will  soon 
be  making  provision  for  this  phase  of  education. 

Courses  of  Study  in  Agriculture. — As  stated  above,  since  1909 
all  the  common  schools  of  the  State  have  been  required  to  offer 
a  course  in  .the  elementary  principles  of  agriculture.  Such  a 
course  has  usually  been  given  in  the  eighth  grade,  and  has  been 
general  in  its  character.  Until  recently  it  was  limited  almost 
entirely  to  textbook  instruction,  the  textbook  used  being  Dug- 
gar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools?8  Within  the  past  few 
years,  however,  school  gardening  or  home-project  work  has  re- 
ceived considerable  attention  in  several  counties.39  In  the  high- 
school  grades  the  work  has  not  been  confined  to  the  study  of 
a  textbook,  but  from  the  first  has  included  both  instruction  and 

33  The  principal  schools  reported  as  making  provision  for  agricultural 
work  in   1918-19  are  located   as   follows:   Bonifay,   in   Holmes   County; 
Gonzalez,  in  Escambia  County;  Greensboro,  in  Gadsden  County;  Largo, 
in  Pinellas  County;  Lemon  City,  in  Dade  County;  Madison,  in  Madison 
County;  Montverde,  in  Lake  County;  Pahokee,  in  Palm  Beach  County; 
Starke,  in  Bradford  County;  and  Wauchula,  in  DeSoto  County. 

34  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  562,  578,  627,  632, 
673,  7ii,  714,  7i9,  723,  740,  752,  and  763. 

35  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6833. 

3«  In  1917-18  the  following  counties  employed  such  agents :  Bradford, 
Clay,  Jackson,  Jefferson,  Orange,  Putnam,  St.  Johns,  St.  Lucie,  Santa 
Rosa,  Taylor,  Volusia,  and  Walton. 

37  See  An.  Rep.  of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919,  Vol.  I,  p.  118. 

38  See  outlined  courses  of  study  issued  by  the  county  boards  of  public 
instruction. 

39  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  562,  578,  627,  632, 
673,  711,  714,  719,  723,  740,  752,  and  763. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  149 

training  somewhat  adapted  to  local  needs.38  Since  the  passage 
of  the  law  which  assented  to  and  accepted  the  provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  the  agricultural  work  in  most  of  the 
high  schools  has  been  strictly  vocational.  In  addition  to  the 
study  of  such  topics  as  are  suited  to  local  conditions,  each 
student  is  required  to  carry  out,  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher  of  agriculture,  a  piece  of  practical  work  at  home,  which 
involves  the  application  of  principles  learned  at  school.40  Thus 
we  see  that  both  the  elementary  and  high  schools  have  begun  to 
be  of  real  value  in  preparing  students  for  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant forms  of  human  activity.  Because  of  the  widespread 
interest  that  is  beginning  to  be  manifested  in  this  type  of  educa- 
tion, there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  courses  of  study  will 
soon  be  greatly  enlarged  and  enriched. 

D.  SPECIAL  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  Extension  of  Special  Education. — During  the  present 
period  (1892-1921)  Florida  has  made  some  progress  in  the  di- 
rection of  providing  instruction  and  training  for  special  classes, 
also.  In  1892  the  only  school  that  was  maintained  for  special 
classes  was  a  school  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb.  Since  then 
not  only  has  this  one  been  greatly  improved,  but  two  new  types 
of  schools  have  been  established  and  maintained  —  reform  schools 
and  kindergartens. 

School  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb. — As  already  pointed 
out,41  a  school  for  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes  of  the  State,  known 
as  the  Florida  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Deaf,  and  Dumb,42  was 
established  by  act  of  the  legislature  at  St.  Augustine  in  1883, 
and  opened  for  the  admission  of  students  in  December  of  the 
following  year.  From  the  very  beginning  it  has  had  a  steady 
growth.43  Since  1891  the  value  of  its  grounds  and  buildings  has 

40  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  777 ;  also  An.  Rep. 
of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919,  Vol.  I,  p.  118. 

41  See  pages  104-06. 

42  In  1909  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Florida  School  for  the  Deaf 
and  the  Blind  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1909,  Chap.  5927). 

43  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1892-94,  pp.   181-83;   1894-96,  pp.   139-43;   1896-98,  pp.  307-12;   1898- 
1900,   pp.  211-23;    1900-1902,  pp.   199-207;    1902-04,  pp.  207-20;    1904-06, 
pp.  241-50;  1906-08,  pp.  177-90;  1908-10,  pp.  187-201;  1910-12,  pp.  184-92; 
3912-14,  pp.  305-11;  1914-16,  pp.  365-94;  1916-18,  pp.  392-400. 


150  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

increased  from  $16,000  to  about  $250,000;  its  annual  income 
from  $10,000  to  $77,246;  its  annual  expenditure  from  $10,000 
to  $37,450;  the  number  of  officers  and  teachers  from  9  to  32; 
and  the  number  of  students  enrolled  from  43  —  36  deaf  and  7 
blind  —  to  185** —  131  deaf  and  54  blind.45  Also,  better  methods 
of  instruction  have  been  introduced,  and  the  number  of  studies 
has  been  increased.  In  the  deaf  department  the  combined 
method,  or  eclectic  system,  has  been  adopted;  and  the  courses 
of  study  have  been  extended  so  that  those  who  desire  may  prepare 
for  admission  to  Gallaudet  College,  Washington,  D.  C.  In  the 
blind  department  the  New  York  point  system  has  been  adopted, 
and  courses  of  instruction  have  been  outlined  in  accordance 
with  the  textbooks  obtainable  under  this  system.  Within  recent 
years  the  graduates  of  both  these  departments,  as  President 
Walker  says,  have  been  almost  without  exception  entirely  self- 
supporting.46 

Reform  Schools. — The  next  class  of  children  to  be  provided 
for  outside  of  the  regular  public  schools  were  those  who  stood 
in  danger  of  becoming  criminals  —  that  is,  children  in  need  of 
special  moral  training.  A  school  for  boys  of  this  class,  known 
as  the  Florida  State  Reform  School,47  was  established  in  pur- 
suance of  an  act  of  the  legislature,  approved  June  4,  i897.48 
It  was  located  at  Marianna,  in  Jackson  County,  and  was  opened 
on  January  I,  iox>o.49  The  object  of  its  establishment  was  to 
reform  young  offenders  of  the  law  and  restore  them  to  the 
community  with  purposes  and  characters  fitting  them  for  good 
citizens,  and  with  a  trade  fitting  them  for  self-maintenance.50 
Until  January  of  1919,  however,  this  institution  was  nothing 

44  The  enrollment  for  1917-18. 

45  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1891-92,  II,  1244,  1250;  Rep.  of  U.  S. 
Com.    of   Ed.,    1917,    II,   661;   and    Bien.    Rep.    of   the    President   of   the 
Florida  School  for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  1916-18,  7-10,  29-37. 

46  See  the  state  superintendent's  report  for  1912-14,  p.  308;    1914-16, 
p.  381 ;  and  1916-18,  p.  397. 

47  In  1913  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Florida  Industrial  School  for 
Boys  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6529). 

48  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1897,  Chap.  4565. 

49  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1898-1900,  pp.  221-23. 

50  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1897,  Chap.  4565,  Sec.  4. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  151 

more  than  a  retention  place  for  juvenile  delinquents.51  But 
since  then  it  has  made  remarkable  progress.  Courses  of  study 
outlined  for  the  regular  public  elementary  and  high  schools,  in- 
struction and  training  in  twelve  different  industries,  military 
training,  a  modern  system  of  farming,  and  so  forth,  have  been 
inaugurated;  a  teaching  body  of  seven  well-trained  persons  has 
been  employed;  and  a  building  program  looking  to  the  erection 
of  not  less  than  fifteen  new  buildings  has  been  adopted.52  In- 
deed, it  is  rapidly  becoming  what  it  was  intended  to  be  —  a 
real  reclamation  school  for  delinquent  boys.53 

A  similar  school  for  girls  was  provided  for  by  the  legislature 
of  191 5. 54  This  institution,  known  as  the  Florida  Industrial 
School  for  Girls,  was  located  at  Ocala,  in  Marion  County,  and 
was  opened  for  the  admission  of  students  in  1917.  From  the 
beginning  it  has  been  what  it  was  meant  to  be  —  a  reclamation 
school  for  girl  delinquents.55  Three  teachers  have  been  em- 
ployed throughout  the  year;  and  instruction  has  been  given  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  language,  story  telling, 
history,  geography,  physiology,  agriculture,  home  economics,  and 
industrial  work.56  It  has  indeed  rendered  a  splendid  service 
to  the  State.  With  the  erection  of  a  new  dormitory,  hospital, 
laundry,  and  dairy,  for  which  the  legislature  of  1919  made  an 
appropriation,  it  promises  to  be  of  still  greater  service.57 

Kindergartens. — Another  special  type  of  school  for  which  legal 
provision  has  been  made  is  the  kindergarten.  In  1905  the  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  which  empowers  any  county  board  of  public 
instruction  or  board  of  trustees  of  any  special-tax  school-district 
to  establish  and  maintain  kindergartens  in  communities  that 

51  Superintendent   Frank   E.   McClane,   in  a  letter   written  to  me   on 
January  26,  1920. 

52  Superintendent  McClane,  in  letter  cited. 

53  The  enrollment  for  1918-19  was  209. 

54  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6840. 

55  However,  no  girl  is  admitted  who  is  pregnant.    If  such  a  one  is  re- 
ceived without  knowledge  of  her  condition,  she  is  at  once  returned  to 
the  judge  who  committed  her. 

56  The  number  of  students  enrolled  in  1918-19  was  40. 

57  There  is  no  printed  report  of  the  school.    The  information  that  I 
have  concerning  it  has,  for  the  most  part,  been  obtained  from  its  super- 
intendent, Miss  Lumie  B.  Davis. 


152  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

guarantee  the  attendance  of  twenty-five  kindergarten  pupils. 
Every  kindergarten  established  must  be  a  part  of  the  public 
school  in  the  same  community,  and  under  the  direction  and  con- 
trol of  its  principal;  and  every  teacher  employed  as  principal 
of  a  kindergarten  department  must  hold  a  certificate  of  grad- 
uation from  a  reputable  kindergarten  training-school.58  As  yet, 
however,  not  many  public-school  kindergartens  have  been  es- 
tablished.59 But,  in  view  of  the  growing  interest  in  this  type 
of  school,  which  I  have  observed  among  the  people  of  several 
of  the  towns  and  cities,  I  feel  that  there  will  soon  be  quite  a 
number  of  such  schools  in  the  State. 

E.  HIGHER  EDUCATION 

Higher  Education  Prior  to  1892. — Thus  far,  not  much  has 
been  said  in  regard  to  higher  education,  because  very  little  had 
actually  been  achieved  along  this  line  prior  to  the  present  period 
(1892-1921).  However,  the  men  who  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  various  institutions  of  the  State  were  not  guilty  of  over- 
looking the  importance  of  such  education.  As  early  as  1823, 
only  one  year  after  Florida  had  been  organized  as  a  territory, 
two  townships  of  land,  known  as  seminary  lands,  were  re- 
served by  the  General  Government  for  the  purpose  of  aiding 
in  the  maintenance  of  two  higher  educational  institutions.60  The 
following  year  the  subject  of  higher  education  was  discussed  in 
the  legislative  council.  In  December,  1835,  the  register  of  the 
land  office  was  authorized  and  directed  to  select  and  secure  the 
seminary  lands.61  The  next  year  a  university  was  proposed, 
of  which  fourteen  persons  were  named  as  trustees,  in  the  act 
of  Congress  which  authorized  the  sale  of  lands  for  its  support.62 
Nothing,  however,  seems  to  have  resulted  from  this  proposal. 
In  1837,  1842,  and  1843,  legislative  acts  were  passed  providing 
for  the  preservation  and  leasing  of  the  seminary  lands,62  the 
act  of  1843  providing  also  for  the  lending  of  all  sums  obtained 

58  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5387. 

89  In  1914-15  there  were  but  10  reported,  with  a  total  enrollment  of 
535   (see  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  15). 

60  See  United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  756. 

61  See  Thompson's  Digest  of  the  Statute  Law  of  Florida,  1847,  p.  40. 

62  See  Report  on  Seminary  Lands,  in  House  Journal,  Adjourned  Ses- 
sion, 1845,  appendix. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  153 

from  this  source  on  bond  and  mortgage  at  eight  per  cent.  In 
1845,  when  Florida  was  admitted  to  statehood,  she  was  granted 
by  the  General  Government  two  entire  townships  of  land  in 
addition  to  the  two  which  had  already  been  reserved,  making 
a  total  of  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  acres,63  the  proceeds 
of  which  were  to  be  used  for  the  establishment  of  two  institutions 
of  higher  learning,  one  to  be  located  east  and  the  other  west  of 
the  Suwannee  River.64  The  state  constitution  adopted  that  year 
provided  that  such  proceeds  should  be  and  remain  a  perpetual 
fund,  and  that  the  interest  of  this  fund  should  be  appropriated 
to  no  other  purpose  than  the^one  specified.65  Two  years  later 
the  register  of  public  lands  was  authorized  to  protect  and  rent 
or  sell  these  lands,  and  to  invest  the  proceeds  in  United  States 
stock.66 

The  first  step  taken  by  Florida  toward  realizing  the  object 
of  the  foregoing  Federal  Grant  was '  in  1846,  when  a  board 
consisting  of  four  members,  two  from  each  section  of  the  State, 
was  directed  to  give  its  views  as  to  establishing  the  two  educa- 
tional institutions.67  The  second  step  was  in  1851,  when  a  law 
was  passed  authorizing  the  establishment  of  two  seminaries  of 
learning,  one  upon  the  east  and  the  other  upon  the  west  side 
of  the  Suwannee  River.  Their  first  object  was  to  be  'the  pro- 
fessional training  of  teachers;  their  second,  the  giving  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  artb,  "  in  the  funda- 
mental laws,  and  in  what  regards  the  rights  and  duties  of 
citizens."  As  soon  as  the  buildings  of  either  seminary  were 
completed,  half  the  interest  that  had  arisen  from  the  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  the  seminary  lands  was  to  be  placed  to  its  credit.68 

By  an  act  approved  January  6,  1^53,  the  seminary  east  of 
the  Suwannee  River  was  located  at  Ocala,  in  the  county  of 
Marion,  as  the  result  of  an  offer  by  the  citizens  of  Marion 
County  to  give  the  State  several  town  lots,  with  the  buildings 
erected  thereon,  and  one  thousand  six  hundred  dollars  in  money.69 

63  The  exact  amount  received  was  85,714  acres. 

64  See  congressional  act  of  March  3,  1845. 

65  See  article  ten. 

66  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1846-47,  p.  47. 

67  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1846-47,  p.  83. 

68  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1850-51,  p.  97. 

69  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1852-53,  p.  83. 


154  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

This  school,  known  as  the  East  Florida  Seminary,  was  opened 
in  the  fall  of  that  year.  Here  it  remained  until  1866,  when  it 
was  removed  to  Gainesville,70  where  for  eleven  years  it  continued 
to  be,  as  before  its  removal,  but  little  more  than  a  local  ele- 
mentary school.71  But  in  June,  1877,  Professor  Edwin  P.  Cater 
was  called  to  the  principalship,  which  position  he  held  for  twenty- 
two  years.72  At  once  he  began,  and  continued,  to  make  im- 
provements.73 That  year  the  work  was  graded  as  thoroughly 
as  possible,  and  the  foundation  laid  for  steady  improvement 
along  other  lines.  Gradually  the  elementary  courses  were 
dropped,  and  more  advanced  ones  added ; 74  a  more  competent 
teaching  force  was  employed;  and  better  buildings  and  equip- 
ment were  provided.  From  1883  to  1892  the  seminary  did  ex- 
cellent work,  and  was  patronized  by  the  entire  State.  However, 
it  was  not  a  college,  but  a  high-grade  secondary  school  with* 
the  military  feature  and  a  commercial  and  a  teacher-training 
department. 

The  seminary  west  of  the  Suwannee  River  was  placed  at 
Tallahassee  on  January  I,  1857,  in  consequence  of  an  offer  on 
the  part  of  the  citizens  of  that  town  to  give  the  State  ten  thousand 
dollars,  including  the  property  of  the  Florida  Institute,  a  school 
owned  by  them,  and  also  to  pay  two  thousand  dollars  per  annum 
for  the  tuition  of  the  children  of  said  town.76  This  school, 
known  as  the  West  Florida  Seminary,  was  opened  the  following 
month  for  the  instruction  of  boys.  No  girls  were  admitted  until 
the  fall  of  1858,  after  which  instruction  was  given  both  the 
sexes,  but  in  separate  departments  until  1882.™  Like  the  other 
seminary,  this  one  was  for  the  first  fourteen  years  but  little 

70  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1^65-66,  p.  50. 

71  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  pp.  24-25. 

72  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1898-1900,  p.  179. 

73  See  Bien.   Rep.  of   Supt.  of   Pub.   Ins.,    1878-80,   pp.  24-25,   56-58; 
1880-82,  pp.  15-16;  1882-84,  pp.  10-12;  1884-86,  p.  9;  Annual  Rep.  of  Supt. 
of  Pub.  Ins.,  1887,  P-  12;  1888,  p.  14;  1889,  pp.  12-15;  1889-90,  pp.  12-15; 
1890-91,  pp.  11-12;  and  1891-92,  pp.  14-15. 

74  The  most   important   additions   were   the   establishment   of   normal 
school  work  in  1880,  the  adoption  of  military  training  in  1883,  and  later 
the  introduction  of  certain  commercial  subjects. 

75  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1856-57,  p.  28. 

76  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1880-82,  p.  16. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  155 

more  than  an  elementary  school  for  the  children  of  the  county 
in  which  it  was  located.77  But  from  1880  to  1892  considerable 
progress  was  made.  In  1880  the  primary  courses  were  abol- 
ished.78 Two  years  later  coeducation  of  the  sexes  and  military 
training  were  adopted,  which  helped  to  improve  the  work  of 
the  institution.76  In  1883  the  buildings  were  enlarged;  new  equip- 
ment was  procured;  a  normal  school  established;  and  the  num- 
ber of  the  faculty  increased  to  seven,  which  was  larger  than 
it  had  ever  been.  As  a  result,  there  was  also  a  larger  enroll- 
ment than  ever  before,  seventy-four  students  being  enrolled,  of 
whom  fifteen  were  from  beyond  the  limits  of  Leon  County  —  the 
county  in  which  the  school  was  located.79  In  August,  1887,  when 
Professor  George  M.  Edgar  was  called  to  the  presidency  of 
the  institution,  other  improvements  were  inaugurated.  For  ex- 
ample, the  work  of  the  seminary  was  at  once  reorganized,  the 
military  feature  being  discontinued  and  the  scope  of  instruction 
limited  to  four  years  of  work  —  two  high-school  and  two  col- 
legiate.80 During  the  next  four  years  the  scope  of  instruction 
was  extended,  a  splendid  building  erected,  and  better  equipment 
provided.81  In  1891-92  there  were  seven  years  of  instruction 
offered  —  three  in  the  high-school  and  four  in  the  collegiate 
department.  The  curriculum  included  courses  in  English,  Latin, 
Greek,  German,  French,  mathematics,  history,  political  economy, 
philosophy,  and  natural  science.  That  same  year  there  was  a 
faculty  of  five  well-trained  teachers  and  eighty  matriculated 
students.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  considerable  progress  has  been 
made  since  1880.  However,  the  seminary  still  lacked  a  great 
deal  of  being  a  standard  college  —  that  is,  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  term  is  used  today. 

Another  legislative  step  toward  the  provision  for  higher  educa- 
tion is  found  in  the  law  passed  February  18,  iS/o,82  and  amended 
February  17,  i872,83  which  provided  for  the  establishment  of 

77  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  pp.  23-25. 

78  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1878-80,  p.  59. 

79  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1882-84,  pp.  10-11. 

80  See  Annual  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1887,  pp.  9-12. 

81  See  Annual  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1888,  pp.  14-16;  1889,  pp.  10- 
12;  1889-90,  pp.  10-12;  1890-91,  pp.  10-11;  and  1891-92,  pp.  12-13. 

82  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1870,  Chap.   1766. 

83  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1872,  Chap.  1905. 


156  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

a  college  —  to  be  known  as  the  Florida  Agricultural  College  —  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  congressional  act  commonly 
called  the  Morrill,  or  Land-Grant,  Act  of  i862.84  Having  com- 
plied with  the  provisions  of  the  congressional  act,  the  State 
received  from  the  General  Government  in  1872  ninety  thousand 
acres  of  land,  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  which  were  to  be 
used  for  the  support  of  the  proposed  college.85  The  next  year 
a  site  for  the  institution  was  selected  in  Alachua  County,  but 
nothing  further  was  accomplished.86  In  1875  the  location  was 
changed  to  Eau  Gallic,  in  Brevard  County,  where  a  temporary 
college  building  was  completed  the  following  year.87  But,  as 
before,  no  educational  work  was  inaugurated.  The  place  seems 
to  have  been  entirely  unfit.88  Consequently,  the  new  board  of 
trustees,  which  was  provided  in  March,  1877,  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  three  to  decide  upon  a  suitable  location.89  Nothing, 
however,  was  done  until  1883,  when  the  college  was  located  at 
Lake  City,  in  Columbia  County,  in  consequence  of  its  "  central 
position  and  acknowledged  healthfulness  "  and  of  a  "  generous 
and  public-spirited  offer  "  on  the  part  of  its  citizens.90  During 
the  year  1883-84  an  excellent  building  was  completed,  a  faculty 
of  five  members  selected,  and  a  curriculum  arranged.  On  No- 
vember i,  1884,  the  work  of  instruction  was  finally  begun,  with 
an  enrollment  of  thirty-eight  male  students,91  all  of  whom  were 
in  the  preparatory  department.92  For  the  first  two  years  this 
institution  was  but  little  more  than  a  local  high  school  with 

84  For  the  Morrill  Act  see  U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  37th  Congress,  p.  503; 
and  for  an  amendment  to  it  see  U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  39th  Congress,  p.  208. 

85  On  December  21,   1874,  this  amounted  to  $80,000,  with  which  the 
trustees  had  purchased  $100,000  worth  of  Florida  bonds  (see  Annual  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1873-74,  PP-  40-42). 

86  See  Annual  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1872-73,  pp.  17-31 ;  and  An- 
nual Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1873-74,  pp.  40-42. 

87  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1874-76,  pp.  96-106. 

88  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  p.  56. 

89  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1876-78,  pp.  57-58.     The  au- 
thority for  this  was   given   by  the   legislature  in   November,    1877    (see 
Laws  of  Florida,  1877,  p.  103). 

&0  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1882-84,  pp.  12-13. 

91  Women  were  not  admitted  until  the  fall  of  1895. 

92  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1884-85,  p.  49. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  157 

military  training.93  In  1886  the  board  of  trustees,  in  order  to 
effect  an  improvement,  attempted  to  unite  it  with  what  was  then 
known  as  the  Florida  University94  under  the  name  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Florida  and  Agricultural  College.05  Nothing,  however, 
came  of  this  attempt.  But  from  1886  to  1892  considerable  im- 
provement was  made.96  For  example,  some  of  the  elementary 
courses  were  dropped,  and  more  advanced  ones  added;  five  new 
buildings  were  erected;  better  equipment  was  provided;  and,  in 
1887,  an  agricultural  experiment  station  was,  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  Hatch  Act,97  established  as  a  department  of 
the  college.  In  1891-92  there  were  six  years  of  instruction 
offered  —  two  in  the  preparatory  and  four  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment. The  curriculum  included  courses  in  English,  Latin, 
mathematics,  history,  philosophy,  physics,  chemistry,  biology, 
veterinary  science,  agriculture  and  horticulture,  manual  training 
and  drawing,  civil  engineering,  and  military  science  and  tactics. 
That  same  year  there  were  over  one  hundred  matriculated  stu- 
dents, nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  whom  were  in  the  college  proper,98 
and  a  faculty  of  fourteen  well-qualified  professors.  Thus  it 
is  evident  that  this  institution  was  then  providing  fairly  good 
opportunities  for  higher  education;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
West  Florida  Seminary,  it  had  been  offering  such  opportunities 

83  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1884-86,  pp.  15-16. 

94  This  so-called  university  was  organized  by  private  enterprise  under 
a  liberal  charter  in  February,  1883,  Dr.  John  Kost  being  chosen  as  chan- 
cellor.   It  was  proposed  that  the  institution  should  embrace  five  different 
schools  of  instruction — a  college  of  literature  and  science,  a  college  of 
medicine  and  surgery,  a  polytechnic  and  normal  institute,  a  theological 
institute,  and  a  college  of  law.     The  first  two,  however,  were  the  only 
ones  that  were  ever  put  into  actual  operation.    The  former  was  the  West 
Florida  Seminary;   the  other,  the  Tallahassee  College  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery.     But  these  were  conducted  as  branches  of  the  university  for 
only   a   brief   duration.     This    scheme   for   a  state  university  was   soon 
dropped,   Dr.   Kost — apparently   its   author — becoming  a  member   of  the 
faculty  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  College  in   1886   (see  Rep.  of  U.  S. 
Com.  of  Ed.,  1883-84,  pp.  51-52;  and  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed.,  Circ.  of  Inf.,  No. 
7,  1888,  pp.  46-47). 

95  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1884-86,  pp.  14-15. 

96  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,   1884-86,  pp.   12-14;  Annual 
Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.   Ins.,    1887,  pp.   16-17;   1888,  pp.   12-13;   1889,  pp. 
9-10 ;  1880-90,  pp.  8-10 ;  1890-91,  pp.  7-12;  and  1891-92,  pp.  9-12. 

"  For  this  act  see  U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  440. 
98  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1891-92,  Vol.  II,  p.  1188. 


158  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

only  three  or  four  years,  and  there  were  but  few  of  the  youth 
of  the  State  who  availed  themselves  of  them. 

Still  another  step  in  the  direction  of  higher  education  was 
taken  in  1887,  when  a  law  was  enacted  providing  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  two  state  normal  colleges  —  one  for  whites  and  one 
for  negroes."  The  former,  known  as  the  State  Normal  College 
for  White  Students,  was  placed  at'  DeFuniak  Springs,  in  Wal- 
ton County ;  10°  the  latter,  known  as  the  State  Normal  College 
for  Colored  Students,  at  Tallahassee,  in  Leon  County.101  These 
schools  were  opened  in  October  of  that  year  for  the  admission 
of  both  sexes.  From  the  very  first  both  the  work  of  instruction 
and  the  attendance  were  rather  good.  However,  the  courses  of 
study  were  limited  almost  entirely  to  a  review  or  completion  of 
the  common-school  subjects  and  to  the  professional  training  of 
teachers  for  such  subjects. 

Higher  Education,  1892-1905. — As  we  have  just  seen,  Florida 
had  accompjished  very  little  in  the  field  of  higher  education 
before  1892.  She  had  made  only  a  beginning.  But  during  the 
years  1892-1905  there  was  considerable  progress,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  increase  in  the  number  of  students  enrolled  for  higher 
educational  work  and  by  the  improvement  in  the  courses  of  in- 
struction, the  teaching  body,  and  the  environment  and  equipment 
in  each  of  the  state  institutions  for  higher  learning.  In  the  case 
of  the  East  Florida  Seminary102  a  more  advanced  curriculum 
was  offered,  some  of  the  lower  work  being  dropped  and  three 
years  of  higher  work  added ; 103  the  number  of  teachers  was 
increased  from  five  to  seven;  and  the  buildings  and  equipment 
were  improved,  a  girls'  dormitory  being  provided,  some  much 
needed  apparatus  purchased,  and  several  repairs  made.  In  the 

99  See  page  99. 

100  This  school  was  maintained  largely  by  annual  state  appropriations. 

101  This    school    was    maintained    largely    by    a    special    congressional 
appropriation,  tinder  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  second  Morrill  Act, 
and  annual  state  appropriations  to  meet  the  requirements  not  provided 
for  by  the  congressional  fund. 

102  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for   1892-94,  pp.   167-73;   1894-96,  pp.  67-73;   1896-98,  pp.  281-85;   1898- 
1900,  pp.  179-84;  and  1900-1902,  pp.  164,  173-78. 

103  There  is  no   record   as   to  the  exact  number  of  students   in   the 
higher  courses.     However,  there  were  probably  sixty  in   1900-1901,   for 
there  were  ten  in  the  graduating  class  that  year. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  159 

case  of  the  West  Florida  Seminary,104  known  as  the  Florida 
State  College  after  1901, 105  additional  courses  were  gradually 
provided106  and  the  requirements  for  graduation  slightly  raised; 
the  enrollment  was  greatly  increased,  there  being  but  73  students 
in  1891-92,  only  25  of  whom  were  in  the  collegiate  department, 
and  nearly  350  in  1904-05,  over  150  of  whom  were  in  the  col- 
legiate department ; 10T  the  faculty,  also,  was  greatly  increased,108 
there  being  but  4  members  in  1891-92  and  17  in  1903-04  ;109 
and  the  school  plant  was  considerably  improved,  a  library  build- 
ing and  two  commodious  dormitories,  one  each  for  the  young 
men  and  young  women,  being  constructed,  some  additions  and 
repairs  made,  and  nearly  5,000  standard  library  books  and  con- 
siderable laboratory  equipment  procured.  Thus  it  is  seen  that 
the  growth  of  this  institution  was  quite  noticeable.  But  the 
growth  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  College,  known  as  the  Uni- 
versity of  Florida  after  I9O3,110  was  almost  as  great.111  Some 
of  the  courses  of  study  were  greatly  enriched,  and  several  others 
added ; 112  the  enrollment  was  a  little  more  than  doubled,  there 

104  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for   1892-94,  pp.   162-67;    1894-96,  PP-  77-83;    1896-98,  pp.  285-94;    1898- 
1900,  pp.  184-94;   1900-1902,  pp.  163-64,  169-73;  and  1902-04,  pp.  189-92. 

105  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  163. 

106  A  department  of  science  was  inaugurated  in  1898;  a  teacher-train- 
ing department,  in  1900;  a  music  department,  in  1902;  and  a  business  de- 
partment, in  1903. 

107  There  were  15  in  the  graduating  class  in  1905. 

108  See   Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,   1891-92,  II,   1141;   and  Rep.  of 
U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1903-04,  II,  1473. 

109  NO  record  for  1904-05. 

110  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5272. 

111  For  an  account  of  this  institution  see  the  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  1892-94,  pp.  137-62;  1804-96,  pp.  87-107;  1896-98,  pp.  269-81; 
1898-1900,   pp.    174-78;    1900-1902,    pp.    164-65,    178-85;    and    1902-04,   pp. 
182-89. 

112  Four  years'  work  in  mechanical  engineering,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  science,  and  two  years'  non-collegiate  work  in  commercial 
branches,   stenography,   typewriting,   and   telegraphy  were  inaugurated  in 
1893 ;  a  group  of  courses  specially  fitted  for  training  women,  covering  four 
years  of  work  and  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science,  was  ar- 
ranged in  1895 ;  and  a  group  of  courses  in  chemistry,  civil  engineering, 
and  general  science,  each  extending  over  four  years  and  leading  to  the 
bachelor   of    science    degree,    and    two   years    of    non-collegiate    work    in 
mechanic  arts  were  provided  in  1901. 


160  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

being  no  students  in  1891-92,  49  of  whom  were  regular  college 
students,113  and  225  in  1 904-05, 114  87  of  whom  were  regular 
college  students ; 115  the  number  of  teachers  was  exactly  doubled, 
there  being  28  in  1904-05 ; 115  and  many  valuable  changes  and 
additions  in  the  school  plant  were  effected,  several  splendid 
buildings,  including  a  dormitory,  a  science  building,  and  a  gym- 
nasium, being  erected  and  equipped,  a  238-acre  farm  purchased 
and  improved,  quite  a  number  of  teaching  facilities  added,  and 
many  minor  improvements  made.116  Also,  there  was  no  little 
progress  in  the  two  state  normals.  In  the  one  for  white  stu- 
dents,117 the  curriculum  was  extended  to  cover  five  years'  work, 
instead  of  two,  as  was  the  case  in  1891-92,  and  was  placed  on 
a  more  strictly  professional  basis ; 118  the  enrollment  was  in- 
creased from  90  to  140 ; 11S>  the  number  of  teachers  from  4  to 
1 1 ; 119  and  the  environment  and  equipment  were  improved  con- 
siderably, an  excellent  dormitory  for  young  ladies,  a  new  model 
school,  a  gymnasium,  and  a  laboratory  being  built,  three  ad- 
ditional lots  secured,  and  a  few  other  valuable  changes  and  ad- 
ditions made.  And  in  the  one  for  colored  students,120  which  was 
moved  to  its  present  site121  in  1891,  the  curriculum  was  greatly 
changed,  there  being  added  to  it  a  richer  and  more  varied  con- 
tent, including  courses  in  agriculture,  home  economics,  and  man- 

113  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed,  1891-92,  II,  1188. 

11*  The  enrollment  for  this  year  would  have  been  larger,  if  the 
coeducational  feature,  established  in  1895,  had  not  been  abolished  in  1903. 

us  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1904-05,  H,  690. 

i16  The  total  value  of  the  school  property  was  increased  from  less  than 
$200,000  to  about  $400,000. 

IIT  For  an  account  of  this  normal  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1892-94,  pp.  174-76;  1894-96,  pp.  111-17;  1896-98,  pp.  294-300;  1898- 
1900,  pp.  194-200;  1900-1902,  pp.  165-66,  185-91;  and  1002-04,  pp.  193-200. 

118  In  1904-05  courses  in  the  following  professional  subjects  were  given: 
history  of  education,  theory  of  education,  school  organization  and  super- 
vision, school  management  and  discipline,  psychology  and  child  study, 
and  practical  pedagogy  (see  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1004-05,  II,  787). 

ii»  See  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1891-92,  II,  200;  and  Rep.  of  U.  S. 
Com.  of  Ed.,  1904-05,  II,  794. 

120  For  an  account  of  this  normal  see  the  report  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent for   1892-94,  pp.   177-80;   1894-96,  pp.   121-28;   1896-98,  pp.  301- 
307;   1898-1000,  pp.  201-206;   1900-1902,  pp.   166-67,  208-11;  and  1902-04, 
pp.  205-07. 

121  Just  a  short  distance  from  Tallahassee. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  161 

ual  work  of  various  kinds ;  the  enrollment  was  nearly  doubled,122 
it  being  79  in  1891-92,  and  H3123  in  1904-05;  the  teaching 
corps  was  increased  from  6  to  19  members; 122  and  the  grounds, 
buildings,  and  equipment  were  made  more  adequate  and  suitable. 

In  addition  to  the  five  mentioned,  two  other  state  institutions 
for  higher  education  were  provided  during  these  years.  These 
were  the  South  Florida  Military  and  Educational  Institute,  lo- 
cated at  Bartow,  and  the  St.  Petersburg  Normal  and  Industrial 
School,  located  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  former,124  later  known 
as  the  South  Florida  Military  College,  was  established  in  May, 
1895,  and  placed  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the  state 
board  of  education.125  One  scholarship  for  each  county  was 
created  therein,  the  beneficiary  being  given  the  benefit  of  a  full 
four-year  course  of  instruction  without  any  charge  for  tuition, 
use  of  textbooks,  arms  and  equipment,  board,  lodging,  washing, 
fuel,  and  lights.  The  scholarships  were  awarded  by  the  legis- 
lators of  the  respective  counties.  The  school  was  supported 
almost  entirely  by  legislative  appropriations.  It  was  tolerably 
well  attended,  the  average  attendance  for  the  first  eight  years 
being  fifty-five.  Also  a  fairly  good  type  of  work  was  done, 
its  graduates  standing  as  high  in  business  and  professional  life 
as  those  of  any  other  school  in  the  State.  The  second  insti- 
tution,126 as  already  pointed  out,127  was  established  about  1900. 
At  first  it  was  supported  and  controlled  jointly  by  the  town  of 
St.  Petersburg  and  Hillsborough  County.  But  in  1901  it  was 
made  a  state  school,128  after  which  it  was  supported  and  con- 
trolled by  St.  Petersburg,  the  county  of  Hillsborough,  and  the 

122  See  Kept,  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1891-92,  II,  1284 ;  and  Rep.  of  U. 
S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1904-05,  II,  794. 

123  This  does  not  include  the  131  students  enrolled  in  the  model  and 
preparatory  schools. 

124  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1894-96,  pp.  129-38;  1896-98,  pp.  313-17;  1898-1900,  pp.  206-11;  1900- 
1902,  pp.  167-68,  191-94;  and  1902-04,  pp.  175-85. 

125  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1895,  Chap.  4334. 

126  For  an  account  of  this  school  see  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1898-1900,  pp.  315-19;    1900-1902,  pp.   168,   195-99;   and   1902-04,  pp. 
200-204. 

127  See  page  140. 

128  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1901,  Chap.  4998;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of 
Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  199. 


162  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

State.  Here,  too,  the  attendance  was  fairly  good,  and  tolerably 
good  work  was  done,  especially  in  the  way  of  training  young 
men  and  women  for  elementary  and  high-school  work. 

Consolidation  of  the  Higher  Educational  Institutions. — Thus  it 
is  quite  evident  that  by  1905  Florida  had  made  considerable 
progress  in  the  field  of  higher  education.  However,  she  had 
made  a  mistake  by  endeavoring  to  maintain  too  many  institu- 
tions —  a  greater  number  than  was  warranted  by  her  population 
and  wealth.129  She  had  also  made  a  mistake  by  not  requiring 
these  institutions  to  make  satisfactory  differentiation  among  them- 
selves and  to  separate  their  work  sufficiently  from  that  of  the 
high-school  system.  Consequently,  the  cost  of  their  maintenance 
was  disproportionate  to  the  results  obtained.  None  realized  this 
more  keenly  than  the  educational  leaders,  who  strongly  urged 
the  adoption  of  a  policy  of  concentration  and  differentiation. 
As  a  result,  the  legislature  of  1905  passed  an  act  —  generally 
known  as  the  "  Buckman  Act "  —  providing  for  the  adoption 
of  such  a  policy.130  The  practical  effect  of  'this  was  to  merge 
all  the  institutions  for  white  students  into  two,  the  work  of  these 
being  clearly  differentiated  from  each  other  and  that  of  the 
high  schools  of  the  State.  The  two  newly  created  institutions 
were  a  university  for  men,  known  as  the  University  of  the  State 
of  Florida,  located  at  Gainesville,  and  a  college  for  women, 
known  as  the  Florida  Female  College,  located  at  Tallahassee. 

Higher  Education  since  1905. — The  remarkable  advancement 
made  by  Florida  in  higher  education  since  then  has  demonstrated 
the  wisdom  of  the  legislature  in  adopting  the  foregoing  policy. 
There  has  been,  as  we  shall  see,  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
number  of  students  enrolled  and  a  great  increase  in  both  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  work  done,  not  only  in  the  two  insti- 
tutions for  whites,  but  also  in  the  one  for  negroes. 

The  University  of  the  State  of  Florida131  was  opened  for  the 
admission  of  students  in  the  fall  of  1905  in  the  buildings  of 

129  The  .total  population  of  Florida  in  1900  was  only  528,542;  and  the 
assessed  valuation  of  all  her  property  was  but  $96,686,954. 

130  For  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5384. 

131  For  an  account  of  this  institution  see  the  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  1904-06,  pp.  206-28;  1906-08,  pp.  153-66;  1908-10,  pp.  157-75; 
1910-12,  pp.  155-72;  1912-14,  pp.  282-96;  1914-16,  pp.  321-47;  1916-18,  pp. 
369-77;  and  the  various  catalogues  of  the  institution  since  1905. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  163 

the  former  university  at  Lake  City.  Here  it  remained  for  one 
year,  while  buildings  were  being  erected  for  its  accommodation 
at  Gainesville.  That  year  the  general  organization  and  work 
were  practically  the  same  as  they  were  the  preceding  year  in 
the  former  university,  the  principal  changes  being  that  a  distinct 
normal  school,  which  offered  courses  leading  to  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts  in  pedogogy,  was  maintained;  that  satisfactory 
completion  of  the  eleventh-grade  work  was  required  for  ad- 
mission to  the  freshman  class;  and  that  the  agricultural  ex- 
periment station  was  made  .a  separate  division,  although  mem- 
bers of  its  staff  continued  to  give  instruction  to  the  students  and 
the  president  of  the  university  acted  as  its  director.  The  fol- 
lowing summer  the  university  was  moved  to  its  new  plant,  which 
at  that  time  consisted  of  about  five  hundred  acres  of  land132 
and  two  splendid  buildings.133  During  the  first  session  here 
the  organization  and  work  were  again  but  slightly  changed.  The 
normal  school  was  abolished,  the  courses  in  education  being 
transferred  to  the  university  proper;  the  members  of  the  ex- 
periment station  staff  were  required  to  devote  their  full  time  to 
agricultural  research;  and  a  university  extension  bureau  was 
inaugurated.  For  the  next  two  years  there  were  also  no  changes 
of  importance,  except  the  rapid  development  of  the  extension 
work.  In  a  short  time  this  work  included  the  offering  of  cor- 
respondence courses  in  agriculture  for  the  public-school  teachers, 
the  holding  of  farmers'  institutes,134  public  lectures  by  various 
members  of  the  faculty,  and  the  supervision  of  the  high  schools 
by  the  professor  of  secondary  education.135  But  in  1909,  when 
Dr.  A.  A.  Murphree  was  elected  president,  steps  were  at  once 
taken  to  reorganize  the  university,  which  at  that  time  became 
known  as  the  University  of  Florida.136  By  the  next  year  its 
organization  embraced  the  following  eight  divisions:  (i)  a 
graduate  school,  offering  courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of  master 
of  arts  and  master  of  science;  (2)  a  college  of  arts  and  sciences, 

132  All  of  this  was  given  by  the  citizens  of  Gainesville. 

133  These  were  worth  about  one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  of  which 
the  citizens  of  Gainesville  subscribed  forty  thousand. 

134  These  were  provided  for  by  the  legislature  of  1907. 

135  This  chair  was  established  in   1907,  with  the  generous  co-operation 
and  support  of  the  General  Education  Board  of  New  York. 

136  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1909,  Chap.  5926. 


164  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

offering  courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts, 
bachelor  of  science,  and  bachelor  of  arts  in  education;  (3)  a 
college  of  agriculture,  offering  courses  leading  to  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  science  in  agriculture;  (4)  a  college  of  engineering, 
with  curriculums  leading  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  science 
in  civil  engineering,  bachelor  of  science  in  electrical  engineering, 
and  bachelor  of  science  in  mechanical  engineering;  (5)  a  college 
of  law,137  with  a  curriculum  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  laws;  (6)  a  preparatory  school,  including  courses  for  grad- 
uates of  junior,  or  tenth-grade,  high  schools  and  short  courses 
in  agriculture  and  mechanical  arts;  (7)  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment station;  and  (8)  a  university  extension  bureau.  Since  then 
there  have  been  other  important  changes.  In  1912  the  teacher- 
training  activities  of  the  university  were  reorganized  and  a  sep- 
arate division  known  as  the  Teachers  College  and  Normal  School 
was  established.  In  1913  the  present  academic  requirement  for 
admission  to  the  freshman  class  went  into  effect,  this  require- 
ment being  a  satisfactory  completion  of  the  twelfth-grade  work. 
That  same  year  a  summer  school,  intended  primarily  for  teachers, 
but  open  to  others  also,138  was  established  by  act  of  the  legis- 
lature.139 The  following  year  the  co-operative  agricultural-ex- 
tension work140  provided  for  by  the  Smith-Lever  Act  of  Con- 
gress141 was  inaugurated.  In  June,  1917,  when  the  legislature 
of  Florida  accepted  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
the  university  was  designated  as  the  institution  for  the  training 
of  white  teachers  of  agriculture,  trades,  and  industries,142  and 
since  then  this  vocational  teacher-training  work  has  been  defi- 
nitely organized.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  since  1905  the 
university  has  made  great  progress  in  regard  to  its  general  organ- 
ization and  work.  During  this  same  time  it  has  also  gained  much 
in  its  material  aspects.  Approximately  one  hundred  acres  have 

137  This  college  was  established  in  1909. 

iss  This  school  has  always  been  coeducational. 

139  por  this  act  see  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6498. 

140  This    work    included   practical    instruction    and    demonstrations    in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  in  the  various  communities  of  the  State, 
and  was   carried   on   by  the  university  in   co-operation   with   the   United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

"I  For  this  act  see  U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  XXXVIII,  372. 
142  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7376. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  165 

been  added  to  its  domain;  thirteen  excellent  buildings,  worth 
about  three  hundred  fifty  thousand  dollars,  have  been  erected; 
and  more  adequate  equipment  and  supplies  have  been  provided. 
Its  faculty  and  student  body,  too,  have  rapidly  increased,  the 
number  of  professors  and  instructors  having  increased  from 
fifteen  to  sixty-five,143  and  the  student  enrollment  from  one 
hundred  thirty-six  to  six  hundred  sixty-four.144  Indeed,  it  -has 
grown  into  a  real  university,  and  promises  to  go  on  to  still 
greater  efficiency. 

The  other  higher  educational  institutions  for  whites,  the 
Florida  Female  College,145  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1905  also, 
in  the  old  buildings  of  the  former  Florida  State  College  at  Tal- 
lahassee.146 From  the  beginning  the  highest  ideals  have  been 
fostered,  as  is  shown  by  the  mottoes  of  the  new  college  seal  — 
Vires,  Artes,  Mores  and  Femina  Perfecta.  To  realize  these 
more  fully  there  have  been  numerous  attempts  at  improvement 
along  all  lines.  During  the  first  session  the  general  organization 
was  somewhat  different  from  what  it  had  been  in  the  former 
college.  It  consisted  of  the  following  main  divisions:  a  college 
of  liberal  arts  and  sciences,  offering  courses  leading  to  the  de- 
grees of  bachelor  of  arts  and  bachelor  of  science;  a  school  of 
industrial  arts,  with  special  emphasis  on  cooking  and  sewing; 
a  school  of  fine  arts,  offering  courses  in  music,  both  vocal  and 
instrumental,  drawing,  painting,  and  expression ;  and  a  school  for 
teachers,  which  took  the  place  of  the  abolished  state  normal  at 
DeFuniak  Springs.  In  1906  the  school  of  industrial  arts  was 
combined  with  the  college  and  the  school  for  teachers;  and  the 
school  of  fine  arts  was  divided  into  three  schools  —  a  school  of 
music,  a  school  of  art,  and  a  school  of  expression.  In  1909  some 

143  This  does  not  include  the  numerous  student  assistants. 

144  Including  the  summer  school,  the  short  courses  for  farmers,  and  the 
courses  for  the  boys'  clubs,  the  enrollment  for  1919-20  was  nearly  thirteen 
hundred. 

145  In   1909  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Florida   State  College  for 
Women  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1909,  Chap.  5924). 

146  por  an  account  of  this  institution  see  the  report  of  the  state  su- 
perintendent  for    1904-06,  pp.  231-40;    1906-08,  pp.    167-76;    1908-10,   pp. 
176-86;    1910-12,  pp.    173-92;    1912-14,  pp.  297-304;    1914-16,  pp.   349-63; 
1916-18,  pp.  377-92;   and  the  various  catalogues  of  the  institution   since 
1905. 


166  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

extension  work  for  the  women  and  girls  of  the  State  was  done 
by  the  director  of  the  department  of  home  economics.  Two 
years  later  a  regular  extension  division  was  established,  the  work 
of  which,  since  1914,  has  been  conducted,  for  the  most  part, 
in  co-operation  with  the  University  of  Florida  and  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  1913  a  summer  school,  de- 
signed for  public-school  teachers,  but  open  to  all  students,147  was 
established  by  legislative  action.148  Three  years  later  a  graduate 
school  and  a  department  of  business  were  inaugurated.  In  June, 
1917,  when  the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  were  accepted 
by  the  State,  the  college  was  designated  as  the  institution  to  pre- 
pare white  teachers  of  home-economics  subjects.149  To  meet  the 
demand  for  vocational  home  economics  created  by  this  Federal 
Act,  there  was  organized  the  following  year  a  school  of  home 
economics  co-ordinate  with  the  other  schools  of  the  college.  Thus 
it  is  seen  that  since  1905  there  has  been  a  decided  improvement 
in  the  matter  of  organization.  Since  then  the  plant,  too,  has 
been  greatly  improved.  Six  handsome  brick  buildings,  modern 
in  every  respect,  have  been  erected ;  excellent  equipment  and  sup- 
plies have  been  procured ;  the  campus  has  been  enlarged  and  im- 
proved until  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  this  country ;  and 
a  college  farm  consisting  of  nearly  two  hundred  acres  has  been 
purchased  and  placed  under  cultivation.  Also  the  teaching  staff 
and  student  body  have  become  much  larger,  the  number  of 
teachers  having  increased  from  about  twenty  to  forty-five,150 
and  the  number  of  students  from  two  hundred  four  to  six 
hundred  sixty-two.151  And,  as  a  result  of  these  improve- 
ments, the  standard  of  the  college  has  been  steadily  raised. 
Since  September,  1913,  four  years  of  standard  high-school  work, 
or  its  equivalent,  have  been  required  for  admission  to  the  fresh- 
man class.  Since  1915  the  college  has  been  a  member  of  the 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern 
States,  an  organization  to  which  only  colleges  of  first-class  stand- 

147  This  school  has  always  been  coeducational. 

148  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6498. 

149  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7376. 

150  This  does  not  include  the  numerous  student  assistant's  and  those 
engaged  exclusively  in  home-demonstration  work. 

151  Including  the  summer  school,  the  enrollment  for  1919-20  was  over 
eleven  hundred. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  167 

ing  are  admitted,152  and  to  which  but  few  colleges  for  women  be- 
long. Hence  we  see  that  it  has  become  one  of  the  very  best 
colleges  for  women  in  the  South;  and,  like  the  university,  it 
has  thoroughly  justified  the  wisdom  of  the  people  of  Florida  in 
its  establishment. 

Besides  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  for  whites,  the  State 
has  maintained  one  for  negroes.153  As  already  pointed  out,154 
this  was  established  in  1887  as  a  state  normal,  and  was  opened 
at  Tallahassee  in  the  fall  of  that  year.  Unlike  the  other  higher 
educational  institutions  of  the  State,  it  was  not  abolished  in  1905, 
but  was  continued  as  a  state  institution  for  the  training  and 
instruction  of  colored  teachers,  it  becoming  officially  known  as 
the  Colored  Normal  School.155  By  that  time  the  institution  had 
made  considerable  progress.  However,  it  was  not  yet  a  college, 
but  a  good  secondary  school  with  industrial,  agricultural,  home- 
economics,  and  teacher-training  features.  Since  then  it  has  made 
a  great  advance.  For  example,  the  plant  facilities  have  been 
enlarged  and  improved,  the  number  of  teachers  and  students 
has  been  increased,  the  older  courses  of  instruction  have  been 
modified  and  enriched,  and  several  new  ones  added.  At  present 
the  institution  has  twenty-two  buildings;  all  of  which  are  fairly 
good  and  tolerably  well-equipped,  a  splendid  campus,  and  over 
two  hundred  acres  of  excellent  farming  land.  It  has  a  faculty 
of  forty-two  well-trained  men  and  women,  and  an  enrollment 
of  nearly  three  hundred  fifty  students.  Its  instructional  ac- 
tivities include  eight  years  of  work  —  four  in  the  high-school156 
and  four  in  the  collegiate  department.  The  collegiate  work  em- 
braces six  groups  of  studies,  each  of  which  leads  to  a  certificate 
or  a  bachelor's  degree.  These  courses  are  in  the  liberal  arts 
and  sciences,  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  teacher-training, 

152  See  Bull,  of  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed.,  1917,  No.  17,  pp.  65-66. 

153  For  an  account  of  this  institution  see  the  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  1904-06,  pp.  254-57;   1906-08,  pp.  191-93;   1908-10,  pp.  202- 
06;  1910-12,  pp.  193-95;  1912-14,  pp.  312-16;   1914-16,  pp.  395-405;   1916- 
18,  pp.  400-404;  and  the  various  catalogues  of  the  institution  since  1905. 

154  See  page  99. 

155  In  1909  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Florida  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College  for  Negroes  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1909,  Chap.  5925). 

156  The  work  in  this  department  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the 
standard  four-year  high  schools  of  the  State. 


168  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

agriculture,  mechanic  arts,  and  home  economics.  During  the  past 
few  years  each  phase  of  this  work  has  gradually  been  enlarged 
and  perfected.  However,  instruction  in  agriculture  and  home 
economics  has  been  a  special  feature.  In  addition  to  the  reg- 
ular courses  in  these  subjects,  extension  work  provided  for  by 
the  Smith-Lever  Act  has  been  inaugurated,  and,  as  President 
Young  says,157  has  "  developed  most  remarkably."  The  train- 
ing of  teachers,  too,  particularly  for  vocational  subjects,  has  been 
stressed.  Vocational  teacher-training  work  provided  for  by 
legislative  and  congressional  appropriations,  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act,  has  been  undertaken.  Special  courses  in  agricultural, 
home-economics,  trade,  and  industrial  subjects  have  been  organ- 
ized, and  very  satisfactory  work  is  being  given.158  Also  a  two- 
months'  summer  school  for  active  and  prospective  teachers,  pro- 
vided for  by  the  legislature  of  I9I3,159  has  been  maintained. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  this  institution  has  made  rapid  progress. 
For  the  last  few  years  it  has  been,  and  still  is,  rendering  an 
invaluable  service  to  the  State ;  and,  if  the  succeeding  legislatures 
will  be  a  little  more  generous  in  their  appropriations,  it  is  a 
safe  prediction  that  it  will  render  a  still  greater  service. 

SUMMARY 

During  the  last  two  decades  the  movement  for  vocational  ed- 
ucation in  Florida  has  made  considerable  progress.  Courses  of 
instruction  in  commercial,  industrial,  home-economics,  and  ag- 
ricultural subjects  have  been  introduced  in  quite  a  number  of 
the  public  elementary  and  high  schools,  and  some  excellent  re- 
sults accomplished.  A  regular  department  in  one  or  more  of 
these  fields  has  been  established  in  several  of  the  high  schools. 
Moreover,  a  number  of  the  counties  have  introduced  home-  and 
farm-demonstration  work,  which  is  becoming  more  closely  affili- 
ated with  the  work  of  the  schools  every  year. 

During  this  time  there  has  also  been  some  advance  in  regard 
to  special  types  of  schools.  The  school  for  the  blind  and  deaf- 
mutes,  established  in  1883,  has  been  greatly  improved.  A  reform 

157  See  Bulletin  of  the  Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College, 
Series  XII,  No.  9  (September,  1919),  P-  4- 

188  See  An.  Rep.  of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919,  Vol.  I,  pp.  117-19- 
159  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6498. 


THE   PUBLIOSCHOOL  AWAKENING  169 

school  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  opened  in  1900  and  1917, 
respectively,  have  developed  into  splendid  reclamation  schools  for 
juvenile  delinquents.  Furthermore,  legislative  provision  has  been 
made  for  local  kindergartens  and  some  good  schools  of  this 
type  have  been  established. 

Since  1892  there  has  been  notable  advancement  in  higher 
education.  Prior  to  that  very  little  had  been  done  in  this  field. 
But  from  1892  to  1905  the  five  so-called  higher  educational  in- 
stitutions already  established  were  considerably  improved,  and 
two  others  provided.  In  1905  a  law  was  passed  which  reduced 
the  number  of  institutions  to  three  —  two  for  whites  and  one 
for  negroes.  Since  then  these  have  developed  into  real  higher 
educational  institutions,  and,  indeed,  are  rendering  a  great  serv- 
ice to  the  State. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING— Continued 
II.  THE  ENVIRONMENT  AND  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOLS 

We  have  just  noticed  the  advancement  made  with  respect  to 
the  system  of  instruction  as  one  of  the  chief  signs  of  the  develop- 
ment of  public  education  during  the  present  period  (1892-1921). 
Another  sign  of  this  development  is  the  advance  that  has  been 
made  with  respect  to  the  environment  and  equipment  of  the 
schools.  Though  there  had  been  considerable  progress  along 
this  line,  as  we  have  seen,1  during  State  Superintendent  Rus- 
sell's administration,  there  was,  at  the  close  of  his  administration 
(1892),  still  many  deficiencies  and  needs  for  improvement.  In 
this  section  we  shall  endeavor  to  show  the  progress  that  has 
been  made  since  then  in  the  way  of  removing  the  deficiencies 
and  providing  for  the  needs.  In  doing  so  we  shall  notice  the 
following  sub-heads:  (i)  buildings,  grounds,  and  equipment, 
(2)  health  and  sanitary  conditions,  and  (3)  textbooks  used. 

Buildings,  Grounds,  and  Equipment. — Throughout  the  present 
period  there  has  been  a  gradual  awakening,  especially  on  the 
part  of  school  officers,  to  the  importance  of  good,  attractive, 
and  well-equipped  school  buildings  and  grounds  for  all  the 
children  of  the  State.  This  is  evident  from  numerous  state- 
ments of  state  and  county  school  officials.  For  example,  in  1894 
State  Superintendent  Sheats  said  that  the  policy  of  his  admin- 
istration had  been  "  better  schools,  and  fewer,  if  necessary,  to 
produce  that  result."  2  In  1897  Superintendent  John  C.  Compton, 
of  Lake  County,  speaking  at  the  convention  of  county  super- 
intendents, made  this  statement,  which  met  the  approval  of  the 
other  members  of  the  convention : 3 

1  Vide  pages  92-94. 

2  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  71. 

3  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  p.  387. 

170 


THE   PUBLIC-SCHOOL   AWAKENING  171 

"...  To  make  a  school  the  most  effective  it  should  have  a  good, 
comfortable  house,  well  lighted,  ventilated  and  heated,  and  furnished 
with  comfortable  seats  and  desks.  Our  children  should  be  as  well  pro- 
vided for  as  we  ourselves  are.  ..." 

Five  years  later  (1902)  Superintendent  Sheats  reported:4 

"  The  spirit  of  school-house  building  is  rapidly  developing  in  the  State, 
brick  and  neat  frame  buildings  taking  the  place  of  improperly  constructed 
and  unsightly  old  structures.  ..." 

Eight  years  after  this  (1910)  quite  a  number  of  county  super- 
intendents of  public  instruction  stated  that  there  was  a  growing 
disposition  on  the  part  of  trie  people  to  improve  the  school  prop- 
erty,5 the  following  statement  by  Superintendent  T.  W.  Price, 
of  Levy  County,  being  quite  typical  of  the  others : 6 

"  For  the  past  two  years  our  people  have  been  very  active  in  im- 
proving their  school  buildings  and  grounds  and  making  them  more  at- 
tractive and  comfortable.  ..." 

And  three  years  ago  (1918)  Superintendent  Sheats  stated  that 
since  1898  there  had  been  a  regular  and  continuous  growth  of 
interest  along  all  material  lines.7 

As  a  result  of  this  awakening,  and  of  new  and  improved 
legislation,8  there  has  been  a  steady  and  persistent  progress  in 

4  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  38. 

5  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  pp.  37,  38,  41,  43,  46, 
49,  56,  59,  63,  66,  72,  75,  81,  87,  92,  94,  102,  104,  106,  no,  116,  118,  130,  134, 
135,  and  154. 

6  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1908-10,  p.  102. 

7  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  17  and  31. 

8  There  have  been  three  legislative  steps  which  have  helped  very  much 
in  the  way  of  providing  better  school  buildings  and  grounds.     The  first 
was  taken  in  1899,  when  an  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  board  of  pub- 
lic instruction  of  any  county  to  contract  debts  for  the  purchase  of  real 
estate  to  be  used  for  educational  purposes   (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1899, 
Chap.  4682).    The  second  was  taken  four  years  later,  when  the  legislature 
passed  a  resolution  proposing  an  amendment  to   the  constitution  fixing 
the  maximum  rate  of  millage  to  be  assessed  in  each  county  for  school 
purposes  at  seven  instead  of  five  mills.     This  amendment  was  ratified  by 
the  people  at  the  general  election  in  November,  1904  (see  Bien.  Rep.  of 
Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  p.  8).    And  the  third  step  was  taken  in  1917, 
when  the  legislature  passed  a  resolution  proposing  that  the  constitution 
be  amended  so  as  to  fix  the  maximum  rate  of  millage  at  ten  mills.    This 
amendment  was  adopted  at  the  general  election  in  November  of  the  fol- 


172  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

providing,  improving,  and  equipping  public-school  buildings  and 
grounds.  The  table  on  the  following  page  will  give  us  some 
idea  of  the  progress  made. 

Hygienic  Conditions. — There  has  been  an  awakening  to  the 
importance  of  the  health  of  the  school  children,  too.  This  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  the  older  reports  of  the  various  school 
officers  with  the  more  recent  ones,  the  later  reports  having  more 
to  say  with  regard  to  the  necessity  of  good  health  conditions. 

There  have  also  been  some  important  legislative  requirements 
as  to  the  health  of  the  school  children,  the  following  being  the 
principal  ones:  (i)  that  the  teachers  should  offer  instruction 
in  hygiene  to  all  children  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the  public 
schools;9  (2)  that  they  should  teach  the  evils  of  alcoholic  stim- 
ulants and  narcotics  to  all  public-school  children  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  twelve  years;10  (3)  that  all  school  buildings  should 
be  provided  with  sanitary  toilets;11  and  (4)  that  medical  in- 
spection under  the  supervision  of  the  state  board  of  health 
should  be  provided  for  all  pupils  attending  the  public  schools, 
the  pupils  being  examined  as  to  their  physical  condition  at  least 
once  during  each  school  year.12 

In  consequence  of  these  legislative  requirements,  and  of  recent 
interest  in  educational  hygiene,  there  seems  to  have  been  con- 
siderable advancement  in  the  school  health  movement.  This 
appears  from  the  fact  that  the  reports  of  the  school  officers 
during  the  early  part  of  the  period  had  but  little  or  nothing  to 
say  concerning  hygienic  conditions  of  the  schools,  whereas  most 
of  the  recent  reports  call  attention  to  many  evidences  of  progress 
along  this  line.13  They  show,  for  example,  that  for  the  most 

lowing  year  (see  Laws  Relating  to  Education  Enacted  by  the  Florida 
Legislature  of  1917  and  1919,  compiled  by  State  Superintendent  W.  N. 
Sheats,  p.  i). 

9  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5206,  Sees.  4  and  5. 

10  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6832;  supra,  120;  and  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  78. 

11  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6836. 

12  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6829. 

13  See,  especially,  the  reports  of  the  superintendents  of  public  instruc- 
tion of  Alachua,   Bradford,   Clay,  Lafayette,   Leon,   Monroe,   St.   Johns, 
Santa  Rosa,  Volusia,  and  Walton  counties,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Ins.,  1912-14,  PP.  49i,  498,  507,  563,  572,  587,  609,  616,  632,  646;  the  re- 
ports of  the  superintendents  of  Broward,  Calhoun,  Dade,  DeSoto,  Duval, 


THE   PUBLIC-SCHOOL   AWAKENING 


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174  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN   FLORIDA 

part  the  school  buildings  are  better  lighted,  heated,  and  ventilated ; 
that  they  are  provided  with  more  comfortable  desks,  better 
water  supply,  and  more  sanitary  toilets;  and  that  more  attention 
is  given  to  the  imparting  of  knowledge  of  hygiene,  to  the  pro- 
viding of  opportunities  for  play,  and  to  the  preventing  of  and 
caring  for  the  physical  defects  of  the  children.15 

However,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  there  are  still  many  needs 
for  improvement,  the  most  common  defects  being  the  lack  of  prop- 
er lighting  and  suitable  ventilation  and  toilet  facilities.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  small,  isolated,  rural  schools.16  Some  of 
these  schools  have  too  limited  amount  of  glass  surface  to  admit 
sufficient  light ;  quite  a  number  have  windows  facing  the  children ; 
and  many  of  them  have  windows  that  are  either  poorly  shaded,  or 
else  not  shaded  at  all,  the  children  being  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun,  even  in  the  hottest  weather.  Some  of  them  have 
windows  that  are  without  weights  or  cords,  and  therefore  no 
way  of  giving  natural  ventilation  to  the  schoolrooms;  quite  a 
number  have  toilets  or  privies  that  are  improperly  constructed 
and  poorly  kept ;  and  some  are  "  unsuitable  from  almost  every 
standpoint."  But  in  most  cases  the  people  are  becoming  dis- 

Gadsden,  Hamilton,  Holmes,  Jefferson,  Lake,  Liberty,  Madison,  and 
Osceola  counties,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  pp.  558, 
560,  580,  595,  612,  629,  633,  644,  651,  659,  672,  675,  696;  the  reports  of  the 
superintendents  of  Franklin,  Hernando,  Hillsborough,  Jackson,  Marion, 
Okaloosa,  Okeechobee,  Orange,  Pasco,  Pinellas,  and  Putnam  counties, 
in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  608,  615,  620,  626,  657, 
665,  668,  670,  687,  690,  709;  and,  also,  the  reports  of  the  two  state  rural 
school  inspectors,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  347- 
58  and  359-67. 

15  One  county — St.  Johns — maintains  a  dental  clinic  and  provides  free 
dental  service  to   all  public-school  pupils  in  the  county.     This  is  made 
possible  by  the  generosity  of  Mr.  John  T.  Dismukes,  of  St.  Augustine, 
who   pays   the   dentist's   salary    (see   Bien.   Rep.   of   Supt.   of   Pub.   Ins., 
1912-14,  p.  609;  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  711;  and 
Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  713). 

16  For  an  account  of  these  defects  see  the  reports  of  the  state  rural 
school  inspectors  for  the  calendar  years  1917  and  1918,  in  the  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  347-67. 

Three  years  ago  I  had  the  opportunity  of  visiting  quite  a  number  of 
the  public  schools  in  nearly  every  county  of  the  State.  I  found,  as, 
stated  in  these  reports,  that  as  a  rule  the  schools  of  the  towns  and  cities 
had  adequate  provision  for  guarding  the  health  of  the  children,  while 
many  of  the  country  schools  were  quite  deficient  in  this  respect. 


THE    PUBLIC-SCHOOL   AWAKENING  175 

satisfied  with  these  poor  conditions,  and  are  spending  consider- 
able time,  thought,  and  money  in  removing  them.  Hence,  it 
is  quite  probable  that  practically  all  the  schools  of  the  State  will 
soon  have  adequate  provision  for  guarding  the  health  of  the  pupils. 

Textbooks  Used. — And,  in  the  third  place,  there  has  been  a 
great  advance  in  the  matter  of  textbooks.  This  has  been  due 
very  largely  to  new  and  better  legislation,  the  first  advanced 
legislative  step  being  in  June,  1899,  when  a  law  was  enacted 
providing  for  county  uniformity  of  textbooks  in  the  public  ele- 
mentary schools.17  This  lawfc  required  that  the  books  constituting 
such  uniform  system  in  each  county  should  be  selected  by  the 
county  board  of  public  instruction,  after  consultation  with  the 
county  superintendent  and  at  least  three  leading  teachers  of  the 
county;  that  the  adoption  of  such  system  should  be  gradual,  the 
entire  adoption,  however,  consummated  by  July  I,  1901 ;  that 
the  adoption  should  last  for  at  least  five  years;  that  the  county 
superintendent  should  see  that  the  adoped  books  were  used  by 
the  pupils;  and  that  the  teachers  should  use  no  other  books  in 
teaching.18 

As  has  been  seen,19  a  law  similar  to  this  was  enacted  in  March, 
1883;  but  as  it  was  omitted  in  the  codification  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  in  1892,  the  State  ceased  to  have  any  law  relative  to 
the  adoption  of  textbooks.  Consequently,  the  county  boards 
began  to  break  away  from  the  plan  of  making  uniform  adoptions, 
thereby  reviving  the  old  evils  of  poor  quality,  frequent  changes, 
and  multiplicity  of  textbooks.  By  1898  it  had  become  quite 
evident  that  another  law  upon  this  subject  was  needed.20  No 
one  recognized  this  more  keenly  than  State  Superintendent  Sheats. 
In  his  report  of  July  I,  i898,21  he  recommended  the  enactment 
of  a  law  requiring  county  uniformity.  As  pointed  out  in  the 
preceding  paragraph,  such  a  law  was  enacted  the  following  year. 

This  law  was  put  into  operation  at  once  in  all  the  counties  of 
the  State,  and  remained  so  until  1911,  when  it  was  displaced 

17  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1899,  Chap.  4680. 

18  None  of   these  requirements,  however,  could  impair  any  entire  or 
partial   adoption   already   in   existence   in   any   county  of   the   State    (see 
section  three  of  the  law). 

19  See  page  72. 

20  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1896-98,  pp.  231  and  465. 

21  See  pages  36-37. 


176  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN   FLORIDA 

by  a  more  advanced  one.  From  the  very  first  it  gave  satisfaction 
to  nearly  all  the  school  officers  and  teachers  and  to  a  large 
majority  of  the  patrons.22  The  only  adverse  criticism  of  it 
that  I  have  been  able  to  find  was  that  it  should  have  made  the 
State,  instead  of  the  county,  the  unit  for  the  adoption  of  text- 
books.23 

On  May  23,  1911,  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  state  adop- 
tion.24 This  act  constituted  the  board  of  commissioners  of  state 
institutions25  a  state  textbook  commission;  and  also  created  a 
subcommission  of  not  less  than  nine  members,  —  four  county 
superintendents  and  five  teachers  —  all  of  whom  were  to  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  com- 
mission was  authorized  and  directed  to  select  and  adopt  a  uni- 
form series  of  textbooks  for  use  in  the  public  elementary  schools, 
county  boards  of  education  still  having  the  power  to  adopt  high- 
school  textbooks;  but  all  books  submitted  were  to  be  referred 
to  the  subcommission,  which  was  directed  to  consider  their  merits 
without  regard  to  price,  and  report  on  the  same  to  the  com- 
mission, indicating  first  choice,  second  choice,  and  so  on,  for 
each  branch.  The  commission  was  further  authorized  and  di- 
rected to  award  contracts  for  furnishing  the  books  to  be  used 
in  the  public  schools,  no  contract  to  be  changed  without  the 
consent  of  four  members  of  the  commission  and  the  publisher 
to  whom  it  was  awarded.  All  adoptions  were  to  be  for  a  period 
of  five  years,  and  after  the  first  adoption  not  more  than  ten 
per  cent  of  the  books  could  be  changed  in  any  one  year.  The 
publishers  were  to  maintain  in  each  county  of  the  State,  if  the 
commission  thought  advisable,  and  so  demanded,  "not  less  than 
one  nor  more  than  twelve  agencies  for  the  distribution  of  the 
books."  The  state  superintendent  was  required  to  issue  to  the 
county  superintendents  a  circular  letter  giving  the  list  of  books 

22  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1898-1900,  p.  45. 

23  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  pp.  254,  264,  267,  270, 
272,  297,  353,  359;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  pp.  73 
and  92. 

24  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1911,  Chap.  6178. 

25  This  board  consists  of  the  governor  and  the  administrative  officers 
of  the  executive  department,  and  has  supervision  of  all  matters  connected 
with  the  state  institutions  in  such  manner  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law 
(see  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  IV,  Sec.  17). 


THE   PUBLIC-SCHOOL   AWAKENING  177 

adopted,  prices,  location  of  agencies,  method  of  distribution,  and 
such  other  information  as  he  deemed  necessary.  The  books 
adopted  were  to  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  Penalties 
were  provided  for  the  use  of  any  book  not  upon  the  adopted 
list,  for  the  failure  of  publishers  to  execute  contracts  within 
thirty  days  after  being  awarded  them,  for  their  failure  to  per- 
form them  faithfully,  and  for  overcharges  on  the  part  of  both 
publishers  and  dealers. 

This  act  was  soon  put  into  effect  in  quite  a  number  of  the 
counties,  and,  like  the  foregoing  act,  gave  almost  universal  sat- 
isfaction.26 Superintendent  Charles  H.  Gray,  of  Gadsden  Coun- 
ty, reported : 27 

"The  uniform  textbook  law  has  proven  a  blessing,  in  that  it  has 
provided  us  with  some  excellent  texts  we  were  not  then  using,  and  in 
lowering  the  price  generally.  ..." 

Superintendent  Marshall  Moore,  of  Hillsborough  County,  re- 
ported : 28 

"  The  uniform  textbook  law  is  working  admirably  well.  ..." 
Superintendent  H.  H.  Isler,  of  Leon  County,  stated : 29 

"The  uniform  textbook  law  is  just  what  we  need,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
classify  our  schools  in  Florida.  ..." 

And  Superintendent  W.  T.  Home,  of  Washington  County, 
stated : 30 

"  The  uniform  textbook  law  is  in  full  operation  in  this  county.  We 
are  very  much  pleased  with  the  results  it  brings.  ..." 

26  See  the  reports  of  the  superintendents  of  public  instruction  of  Baker, 
Bradford,  Dade,  DeSoto,  Gadsden,  Hamilton,  Hillsborough,  Holmes,  Lake, 
Madison,  Palm  Beach,  and  Polk  counties,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub. 
Ins.,  1912-14,  PP.  496,  498,  5U,  521,  537,  540,  549,  555,  565,  578,  595,  606; 
and  the  reports   of  the  superintendents   of  Brevard,   Broward,   Calhoun, 
Clay,   Columbia,  Duval,  Lafayette,  Lee,  Leon,  Liberty,   Osceola,   Suwan- 
nee,  Volusia,  Wakulla,  and  Washington  counties,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt. 
of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  pp.  550,  558,  562,  571,  576,  612,  655,  665,  669,  672, 
698,  745,  776,  786,  795. 

27  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  537. 

28  Ibid.,  p.  549. 

29  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  669. 

30  Ibid.,  p.  795. 


178  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION   IN  FLORIDA 

The  chief  objections  to  this  act  were  (i)  that  it  did  not  go 
far  enough,  in  that  it  failed  to  provide  for  state  uniformity  in 
the  high  schools;31  and  (2)  that  it  did  not  make  adequate  pro- 
vision for  distributing  the  books,  thereby  causing  some  incon- 
venience in  a  number  of  places.32  To  meet  these  and  other 
objections  the  act  was  amended  in  191 7,88  and  displaced  by  an 
entirely  new  one  this  year  (1921).  In  1917  the  commission 
was  authorized  and  directed  to  select  and  adopt  a  uniform 
series  of  textbooks  for  the  high  schools,  also;  and  each  of  the 
publishers,  or  the  several  publishers  combined,  was  required  to 
establish  and  maintain  a  central  book  depository  at  some  con- 
venient point  in  the  State,  to  be  designated  by  the  commission, 
and,  also,  one  or  more  agencies  in  each  county  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  books.  A  few  other  changes  were  made,  the  principal 
one  being  with  reference  to  the  subcommission.  After  that  the 
subcommission  was  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  "  upon  the 
nomination  of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction"; 
and  was  to  consist  of  ten  members,  — "  two  county  superin- 
tendents, two  primary  teachers,  two  grade  teachers,  two  high- 
school  teachers,  and  two  teachers  selected  with  reference  to  their 
experience  in  and  knowledge  of  vocational  subjects." 

As  just  stated,  a  new  uniform  textbook  law  was  enacted  by  the 
last  legislature.34  Though  this  law  embodies  the  main  features 
of  the  old  one,  it  differs  from  it  in  several  particulars.  The 
three  chief  differences  are  (i)  that  the  subcommission  shall 
be  composed  of  "  seven  prominent  educators  actually  engaged  in 
school  work  in  the  State  " ;  (2)  that  all  adoptions  shall  be  for 
a  period  of  eight  years;  and  (3)  that  in  any  year  when  books 
must  be  adopted  the  adoptions  shall  be  fully  completed  on  or 
before  March  i.  With  these  changes  the  uniform  textbook  law 
of  Florida  compares  favorably  with  that  of  any  other  state. 

Another  advanced  legislative  step  was  taken  in  June,  191 1,35 
when  the  legislature  passed  "  an  act  to  provide  for  furnishing 
school  textbooks  free  to  certain  children."  By  the  provisions 

31  Ibid.,  pp.  546,  550,  553,  57i,  629,  656,  665. 

32  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  676. 

33  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7374. 

34  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8500. 

35  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1911,  Chap.  6163. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  179 

of  this  act  the  county  boards  of  public  instruction  are  required 
to  furnish  textbooks  free  to  all  indigent  children  not  over  fifteen 
years  of  age ;  however,  when  the  children  reside  in  a  special-tax 
district  the  cost  of  the  books  is  to  be  "  charged  against  and  paid 
for  out  of  the  funds  to  the  credit  of  such  district." 

It  seems  /that  this  act  has  always  given  general  satisfaction, 
for  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  adverse  criticism  of  the  same. 
It  has  certainly  proven  a  great  blessing,  in  that  many  poor  chil- 
dren have  been  supplied  with  textbooks  who  otherwise  would 
have  been  without  them. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  there  has  been  much  improvement  in  the 
way  of  textbooks,  those  of  today  being  better  in  quality,  more 
sufficient  in  quantity,  more  conducive  to  proper  classification  of 
pupils,  and  at  the  same  time  less  expensive  than  ever  before. 
If  this  rate  of  progress  is  continued,  the  textbook  conditions  in 
Florida  will  rank  with  the  best  in  the  near  future. 

III.     THE  TEACHING  BODY 

Still  another  indication  of  the  development  of  public  education 
since  1892  is  the  advance  that  has  been  made  in  regard  to  the 
teaching  body.  In  treating  this  topic  we  shall  consider  the 
following  sub-topics:  (i)  the  number,  qualification,  and  experi- 
ence of  teachers;  (2)  the  preparation  of  prospective  teachers; 
(3)  the  examination  and  certification  of  teachers;  (4)  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  in  service;  and  (5)  the  salaries  of  teachers. 

The  Number,  Qualification,  and  Experience  of  Teachers. — 
There  has  been  a  notable  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers 
employed  and  in  their  qualification  and  experience.  This  is 
shown  by  the  table  on  the  next  page,  which  has  been  prepared 
from  figures  taken  from  various  reports  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  schools. 

The  Preparation  of  Teachers. — As  is  seen  in  the  following 
table,  there  has  been  a  persistent  increase,  not  only  in  the  number 
of  those  engaged  to  teach,  but  also  in  their  fitness  for  service. 
The  importance  of  this  has  ever  been  recognized,  especially  by 
the  school  authorities.  Consequently,  better  provision  has  been 
made  for  the  preparation  of  those  intending  to  teach.  Additional 
agencies  for  the  preparation  of  prospective  teachers  have  been 


180 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


TABLE  XVIII 
STATISTICS  RELATING  TO  THE  TEACHING  BODY  (1897-1920) 


1897- 
98 

1902- 

03 

1907- 

08 

1912- 
13 

1917- 

18 

1919- 
2O 

2,702 

2,8ll 

r?  CQ7 

4.CQQ 

6,ic,o 

6  821 

White  teachers                         

2,108 

2,175 

2,7l6 

3,5O9 

5,062 

ccc.4. 

Negro  teachers                             .... 

684 

656 

881 

I,O9O 

1,288 

1,267 

Certificates  held  by  teachers: 
Both  races                            

2,835° 

2,831 

3,597C 

4,497d 

6,267* 

6,291** 

White                                 

2,151 

2,716 

3,464 

5,049 

5,096 

Negro                               

684 

881 

1,033 

i,  218 

1,197 

Total  temporary                 

21 

e 

357 

147 

ci8 

White                               

19 

e 

277 

125 

197 

Negro                                     

2 

e 

80 

22 

121 

Total  third-grade                

82O 

708 

886 

916 

1,447 

I,O26 

White                               

497 

410 

486 

529 

818 

645 

Negro                                   

323 

298 

400 

387 

629 

l8l 

Total  second-grade                 

1,460 

1,281 

1.396 

1,834 

2,371 

2,l87 

White                                     

1,140 

994 

1,014 

1,374 

1,886 

1,  8l7 

Negro                                   

320 

287 

382 

460 

485 

C7o 

Total  first-grade                         .... 

512 

693 

795 

i,  06  1 

1,299 

I.IlS 

White                                       

471 

640 

736 

973 

1,240 

I,o67 

Negro                                       .... 

41 

S3 

59 

88 

59 

71 

Total  life  first-grade                   .... 

/ 

/ 

e 

76 

117 

171 

White                                       

/ 

/ 

e 

59 

100 

141 

Negro                                       .    •  • 

/ 

/ 

e 

17 

17 

28 

Total  primary                             .    .  . 

o 

o 

76 

118 

112 

White                                       .    .  . 

o 

o 

76 

118 

I2O 

Negro                                           .  . 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Total  life  primary                            .  . 

IO 

e 

41 

105 

112 

White 

IO 

0 

41 

105 

no 

Negro                                             .  . 

o 

0 

o 

o 

2 

Total  special 

/ 

/ 

o 

18 

323 

12S 

White 

/ 

/ 

o 

18 

319 

112 

Negro 

/ 

/ 

o 

o 

4 

11 

Total  state 

IO 

e 

0 

66 

173 

180 

White 

10 

e 

0 

66 

172 

176 

Negro 

o 

e 

0 

o 

I 

Total  graduate  state 

/ 

f 

/ 

/ 

84 

170 

White 

/ 

f 

/ 

/ 

84 

1  60 

Negro 

/ 

f 

/ 

/ 

o 

i 

Total  life  state 

2 

e 

0 

52 

83 

114 

White      . 

2 

e 

0 

51 

82 

III 

Negro 

o 

0 

0 

i 

i 

•y 

Graduates  of  normal  schools 

117 

i«;8 

614 

964 

778 

oio 

White 

2C8 

274. 

448 

780 

623 

707 

Negro 

CQ 

84 

168 

184 

155 

122 

Average  experience  in  months          .  . 

•3Q 

41 

42 

41 

40 

46 

White  males 

47 

CQ 

CO 

c? 

42 

62 

White  females   . 

M 

^2 

14 

16 

T.A. 

10 

Negro  males 

eg 

71 

89 

101 

90 

no 

Negro  females  .  .                  .    . 

^8 

4.1 

7Q 

IO 

47 

CT 

0  As  is  evident,  some  teachers  held  more  than  one  kind  of  certificate. 

6  This  includes  149  certificates  of  other  kinds  than  the  first,  second,  and  third 
grades.  There  is  no  record,  however,  as  to  how  many  of  these  were  held  by  each 
race. 

c  This  includes  520  certificates  of  other  kinds  than  the  first,  second,  and  third 
grades.  Of  this  number  400  were  held  by  whites,  and  40  by  negroes. 

d  This  is  less  than  the  number  of  teachers  employed.  Hence  it  seems  that  some 
of  the  teachers  were  not  certificated. 

•  No  data. 

f  Not  provided  for  at  that  date. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  181 

provided,  and  existing  ones  improved.  The  first  legislation  in 
this  direction  was  the  act  of  May,  1901,  which  provided  for  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  one  scholarship  in  the  state 
normal  at  DeFuniak  Springs  for  each  county  during  the  years 
1901-02  and  1902-03,  the  beneficiaries  to  be  given  not  only  free 
tuition  but  also  $12.50  a  month  for  expenses.36  The  scholar- 
ships were  to  be  assigned  by  the  county  superintendents  and 
school  boards  of  the  respective  counties,  and  only  to  young  men 
and  young  women  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  twenty-five 
who  manifested  teaching  qualities  and  signed  a  pledge  to  teach 
for  at  least  four  years  in  the  State  or  to  return  every  dollar 
received.  Two  years  later  the  sum  of  $9,000  was  appropriated 
for  the  continuation  of  these  scholarships  during  the  years 
1903-04  and  I904-05.37  The  reports  of  this  school  show  that 
the  results  of  these  appropriations  were,  indeed,  very  gratify- 
ing.38 During  the  quinquennium  1900-1905  the  enrollment  in 
the  teacher-training  courses  increased  over  forty  per  cent.  In 
1900-1901,  it  was  99;  in  1901-02,  119;  in  1902-03,  133;  in 
1903-04,  132;  and  in  1904-05,  I4O.39  Nearly  all  this  increase 
was  due  to  scholarship  students,  who  for  the  most  part  possessed 
splendid  qualities  for  teaching.  Speaking  along  this  line,  Prin- 
cipal H.  E.  Bennett,  in  his  report  of  1904,  said : 40 

"...  it  is  believed  that  the  present  scholarship  students  are  of  such 
character  that  they  will  fulfill  the  highest  expectations." 

The  legislature  of  1901  also  passed  an  act  providing  for  an 
appropriation  of  $10,000  to  assist  in  maintaining  a  normal  and 
an  industrial  department  in  the  St.  Petersburg  Normal)  and 
Industrial  School  during  the  biennium  1901—03,  for  the  creation 
of  free  scholarships  in  all  the  departments  of  the  school,  each 
member  of  the  state  legislature  being  entitled  to  select,  under 

36  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1901,  Chap.  4997. 

37  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  196. 

38  Ibid.,  pp.  193-200;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902, 
pp.   185-91. 

39  For  these  figures  see  the  biennial  reports  of  the  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  for  1898-1900,   1900-1902,  and  1902-04,  and  the  an- 
nual  reports   of   the   United    States   commissioner   of   education    for   the 
years   1900-1905,  inclusive. 

40  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  197. 


182  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

regulations  and  restrictions  to  be  prepared  by  the  state  board  of 
education,  one  beneficiary  for  each  department,  and  for  the 
furnishing  of  free  tuition  in  the  normal  department  to  all  stu- 
dents of  the  State  preparing  to  teach.41  Two  years  later  the 
legislature  made  an  appropriation  for  the  carrying  on  of  this 
same  work  during  the  biennium  1 903-05 ,42  As  in  the  case  of 
the  state  normal  at  DeFuniak  Springs,  the  reports  of  this  school 
show  that  the  results  of  these  appropriations  also  were  very 
gratifying.43  Principal  Jos.  E.  Guisinger,  in  his  report  of  1904, 
said:44 

"  Our  normal  school  building  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  school 
buildings  in  the  State.  ..." 

And  in  another  part  of  his  report  he  said : 45 

"  Success  has  crowned  the  efforts  of  those  who  have  worked  so  faith- 
fully while  endeavoring  to  build  up  a  splendid  educational  institution  at 
St.  Petersburg  during  the  past  four  years.  The  small  sums  of  money 
which  the  legislatures  of  1901  and  1903  appropriated  to  assist  in  main- 
taining this  school  have  been  used  to  the  greatest  possible  advantage  by 
the  state  board  of  education,  and  the  result  is  a  splendid  school.  ..." 

Another  act  of  educational  importance  was  the  Buckman  Act 
of  1905,  which,  as  we  have  seen,46  merged  the  six  state  higher 
educational  institutions  for  white  students  into  the  Florida  Fe- 
male College  and  the  University  of  the  State  of  Florida,  thereby 
reducing  the  number  of  state  institutions  for  higher  education 
from  seven  to  three  —  two  for  whites  and  one  for  negroes.  The 
remarkable  growth  of  these  institutions  since  then  has  demon- 
strated the  wisdom  of  the  legislature  in  effecting  this  merger. 
There  has  been  quite  an  increase  in  the  enrollment,  and  a  great 
increase  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  work.  This  has 
been  particularly  true  in  the  departments  of  education.  During 
the  four  years  just  preceding  the  consolidation  the  average 
annual  enrollment  in  the  teacher-training  courses  of  all  the 

41  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1901,  Chap.  4998. 

42  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  204. 

43  Ibid.,  pp.  200-204;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902, 

PP.  195-99- 

44  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  202. 

45  Ibid.,  p.  204. 
48  Supra,  p.  162. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  183 

schools,  including  the  one  for  negroes,  was  but  a  little  over 
three  hundred,  whereas  the  average  annual  enrollment  for  the 
last  four  years  has  been  over  four  hundred.  But  the  increase 
relating  to  standards  has  been  even  more  marked,  the  work 
offered  having  become  so  enlarged  and  enriched  that  it  com- 
pares favorably  with  that  of  the  best  schools  of  the  country. 

But  one  of  the  most  recent,  and  perhaps  the  most  significant, 
pieces  of  legislation  looking  to  the  preparation  of  prospective 
teachers  was  the  act  of  1915  providing  for  county  teacher-train- 
ing departments.47  This  act  directed  the  state  board  of  educa- 
tion to  establish  a  teacher-training  department  in  one  high  school 
in  each  county,  but  this  department  was  to  have  at  least  10  stu- 
dents in  it.  The  board  was  directed  also  to  appropriate  $500 
to  each  department,  provided  the  county  board  appropriated 
an  equal  amount  or  more  to  secure  a  teacher  to  devote  his  en- 
tire time  to  the  department.  It  also  appropriated  $25,000  for 
the  maintenance  of  these  departments  for  each  of  the  two  years 
beginning  July  I,  1915. 

On  August  28,  1915,  the  state  board  of  education,  in  com- 
pliance with  section  one  of  this  act,  prescribed  the  following 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  establishment  and  government  of 
these  departments : 48 

"  Regulation  I.  The  teacher  of  the  teacher-training  department  shall 
not  be  the  principal  of  the  high  school,  nor  shall  the  five  hundred  dol- 
lars ($500)  appropriated  by  the  State  for  such  department  be  used  in 
supplementing  the  salary  of  a  principal,  though  the  principal,  or  other 
capable  teachers,  may  hear  one  or  more  recitations  in  said  department. 

"  Regulation  2.  No  person  shall  be  selected  as  teacher  of  any  teacher- 
training  department  who  does  not  hold  a  valid  Florida  teacher's  certificate, 
and  the  teacher  of  such  department  in  every  county  high  school  may  be 
nominated  by  the  county  board  of  public  instruction,  but  must  be  approved 
by  the  state  board  of  education  before  any  appropriation  will  be  made  by 
said  state  board  for  the  salary  of  the  teacher  of  any  such  department. 

"  Regulation  3.  In  the  selection  of  teachers  for  su.ch  training  depart- 
ments preference  shall  be  given  to  holders  of  Florida  state  certificates,  or 
to  regular  graduates  of  standard  normal  schools  who  are  legally  certifi- 
cated in  this  State,  presenting  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  had  success- 
ful experience  as  teachers;  provided,  that  if  it  be  necessary  to  employ 
teachers  for  such  departments  with  less  qualifications  than  above  pre- 

47  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6830. 

48  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  pp.  73-74. 


184  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

scribed,  every  such  teacher  shall  be  the  holder  of  a  valid  first-grade 
Florida  certificate  and  a  special  certificate  on  psychology,  history  of  edu- 
cation, and  .the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  the  latter  also  taken  in 
Florida. 

"  Regulation  4.  Any  county  seeking  to  establish  a  teacher-training 
department  in  any  school  within  such  county  must  appropriate  from 
county  school  funds  not  less  than  five  hundred  dollars  ($500)  for  the 
salary  of  the  teacher  of  such  department,  which,  with  the  appropriation 
by  the  state  board  of  education,  fixes  the  salary  of  such  teacher  at  not 
less  than  one  thousand  dollars  ($1,000)  for  eight  months'  service;  pro- 
vided, that  any  county  board  of  public  instruction  shall  not  be  prohibited 
from  making  the  salary  greater  than  one  thousand  dollars;  provided 
further,  that  more  than  one  teacher  may  be  employed  for  such  department 
and  be  paid  from  county  or  district  fund,  one  or  both. 

"Regulation  5.  The  salary  of  the  teacher  of  every  teacher-training 
department  shall  be  paid  for  the  first  four  months  from  county  funds. 
The  five  hundred  dollars  appropriated  from  state  funds  shall  be  trans- 
mitted to  the  county  board  of  public  instruction  for  the  payment  of  the 
salary  of  the  teacher  for  the  last  four  months  of  the  school;  provided, 
that  monthly  reports  of  such  department  shall  be  made  as  required,  on 
blanks  furnished,  to  the  state  board  of  education  and  must  show  that 
the  said  department  has  met  all  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  of 
these  regulations. 

"  Regulation  6.  Any  school,  before  receiving  state  appropriation  in 
aid  of  the  establishment  of  a  teacher-training  department,  must  present 
evidence  that  not  less  than  ten  (10)  teacher-pupils  will  regularly  attend 
such  department.  Each  of  such  pupils  must  be  sixteen  years  of  age,  or 
over,  and  must  have  regularly  and  creditably  completed  the  eighth 
grade  of  a  school  with  a  standard  not  lower  than  the  average  eighth- 
grade  course  of  study  of  Florida,  or  must  have  taught  a  public  school  for 
not  less  than  six  months. 

"  Regulation  7.  The  number  of  daily  recitations  by  the  teacher  in  a 
teacher-training  department  shall  not  be  less  than  six,  nor  exceed  eight, 
per  day,  and  all  such  recitations  shall  be  forty-five  (45)  minute  periods; 
provided,  that  some  recitations  may  be  shorter  than  forty-five  minutes 
and  others  as  long  as  sixty  (60)  minutes,  but  the  average  shall  not  be 
less  than  forty-five  (45)  minute  periods.  One  recitation  daily  of  not 
less  than  forty-five  (45)  minutes  shall  be  devoted  to  pedagogy  and 
methods  of  teaching. 

"  Regulation  8.  The  term  of  every  school  establishing  a  teacher- 
training  department  shall  not  be  less  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  (160) 
days,  or  eight  (8)  months,  of  actual  teaching  in  such  department. 

"  Regulation  9.  A  teacher-training  department  shall  not  be  established 
in  any  school  unless  that  school  is  recognized  as  a  high  school  by  the 
state  board  of  education,  and  meets  the  requirements  of  a  high  school  as 
prescribed  by  the  regulations  of  said  state  board  of  education;  provided, 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


185 


that  any  county  not  having  had  a  sufficient  number  of  high-school  pupils 
in  any  one  school  as  to  have  hitherto  obtained  recognition  as  a  high 
school,  the  state  board  of  education  may,  however,  establish  a  teacher- 
training  department  in  such  county  with  no  present  recognized  high 
school,  but  which,  by  the  close  of  the  school  year  1916-1917  shall  have 
such  recognized  high  school. 

"  Regulation  10.  All  teacher-training  departments  shall  be  conducted 
in  accordance  with  an  advisory  course  of  study  submitted  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  until  such  course  shall  be  perfected  and  made  man- 
datory in  all  teacher-training  departments  of  the  State." 

TABLE   XIX 
TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPARTMENTS  FOR  THE  YEAR   1915-16  49 


County 

Location 

Enrollment 

Average 
attendance 

Alachua  

Gainesville.  . 

t'» 

j  i 

DeSoto  

Arcadia.  .    .  . 

72 

28 

Holmes  

Bonifay    . 

d6 

21 

Pasco  

Dade  City 

80 

^6 

Pinellas  

St.  Petersburg 

10 

16 

Taylor  

Perry 

-3  e 

22 

Walton  

DeFuniak  Springs 

AQ 

•3Q 

Washington  

Chipley  

56 

^o 

Total  

379 

194 

TABLE   XX 
TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPARTMENTS  FOR  THE  YEAR  1916-17  50 


County 

Location 

Enrollment 

Average 
attendance 

DeSoto  

Arcadia    ... 

24. 

10 

Duval  

Jacksonville  . 

27 

21 

Hamilton  

Jasper  .  . 

26 

"'O 

Holmes  

Bonifay 

•JQ 

IO 

Jackson  

Marianna 

21 

14 

Monroe  

Key  West 

17 

12 

Pinellas  

St.  Petersburg 

17 

12 

Polk  

Bartow 

22 

ier 

Santa  Rosa.    .    . 

Milton 

28 

14 

Taylor  

Perry 

28 

16 

Volusia  

Daytona 

19 

17 

Walton  

DeFuniak  Springs 

27 

17 

Washington  

Chirjlev 

28 

12 

Total  

3IO 

100 

49  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  75. 

50  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  50. 


186  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

The  two  foregoing  tables  show  the  counties  which  availed 
themselves  of  the  benefits  of  the  act  in  1915-16  and  1916-17. 

As  is  seen,  only  eight  counties  qualified  to  receive  the  state 
appropriation  in  1915-16,  which  was  somewhat  disappointing  to 
the  state  board  of  education.  There  was  an  increase  in  1916-17, 
but  still  the  number  was  not  as  large  as  was  expected.  Several 
of  the  counties  claimed  that  they  did  not  have  sufficient  funds 
to  appropriate  $500  for  a  teacher-training  department,  while 
others  claimed  that  they  could  not  secure  such  teachers  as  were 
required  by  the  state  board  of  education.  There  was  probably 
some  truth  to  the  latter  claim,  for  Superintendent  Sheats  says 
that  "the  state  department  was  given  considerable  trouble  in 
getting  all  those  who  did  teach  in  these  departments  to  qualify 
with  such  certificates  as  the  regulations  of  the  state  board  of 
education  demanded."  51 

As  most  of  the  state  appropriation  made  in  1915  for  the 
purpose  of  helping  to  maintain  county  teacher-training  depart- 
ments for  the  years  1915-16  and  1916-17  had  not  been  used, 
the  legislature  of  1917  passed  an  act  making  it  a  continuing 
appropriation.52  Table  XXI,  on  the  next  page,  gives  the  counties 
which  availed  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  this  act  in  1917-18. 

As  the  following  table  shows,  the  number  of  counties  that 
qualified  to  receive  the  appropriation  in  1917-18  was  one  less 
than  in  1916-17,  the  number  being  twelve.53  However,  the 
average  attendance  of  the  departments  was  considerably  larger 
than  it  was  in  either  of  the  preceding  years,  it  being  194  in 
1915-16,  199  in  1916-17,  and  235  in  1917-18. 

As  is  shown  in  the  next  two  tables,  the  number  of  counties 
qualifying  to  receive  state  aid  in  1918-19  and  1919-20  was  less 
than  in  any  of  the  three  previous  years,  the  number  for  the 
former  year  being  only  seven,  and  for  the  latter  only  six.  This 
decrease  was  probably  due,  to  some  extent,  to  the  lack  of  teachers, 
for  in  1918  Superintendent  Sheats  said  that  the  school  authorities 
were  still  having  difficulty  in  securing  duly  prepared  teachers  for 
the  departments.54  But  it  was  due  mostly  to  the  unwillingness 
of  the  county  boards  of  education  to  match  dollars  with  the 

61  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  74. 

52  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7371. 

53  There  were  thirteen,  but  one  failed  to  complete  the  term. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


187 


TABLE   XXI 
TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPARTMENTS  FOR  THE  YEAR  1917-18 5* 


County 

Location 

Enrollment 

Average 
attendance 

DeSoto      

Arcadia  

32 

29 

Jacksonville 

30 

26 

Apalachicola 

17 

i"? 

TasDer 

27 

iq 

Tampa 

1:7 

44 

Bradentown 

27 

22 

Key  West 

14 

'II 

Polk 

Bartow 

2O 

1C 

Milton 

27 

14 

Taylor 

Perry  

24 

II 

Volusia        ... 

Daytona  

26 

24 

Chipley 

18 

II 

Total 

315 

235 

State  in  support  of  the  departments.55  However,  the  figures  of 
these  five  tables  (XIX -XXIII),  while  not  as  large  as  was 
anticipated,  prove  the  value  of  the  law  providing  for  teacher- 
training  departments  in  duly  approved  high  schools.  If  the 
county  school  authorities  will  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits 
of  this  law,  they  will  have  one  of  the  very  best  agencies  for 
the  preparation  of  teachers  for  their  elementary  schools. 


TABLE  XXII 
TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPARTMENTS   FOR  THE  YEAR   1918-19 56 


County 

Location 

Enrollment 

Average 
attendance 

DeSoto          

Arcadia    

30 

25 

Duval 

Jacksonville  

33 

27 

Escambia             .  . 

Pensacola     

14 

ii 

Hamilton  -    . 

TasDer 

25 

18 

Hillsborough 

Tampa           

52 

41 

Polk 

Bartow                .            

12 

10 

Washington 

Chipley                      

21 

ii 

Total  

1ST 

143 

5*  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  51. 

55  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  42. 

56  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  44. 


188 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


TABLE     XXIII 
TEACHER-TRAINING  DEPARTMENTS  FOR  THE  YEAR   1919-20 56 


County 

Location 

Enrollment 

Average 
attendance 

DeSoto 

Arcadia 

•3Q 

27 

Duval 

Jacksonville 

•34 

^1 

Hamilton 

TasDer 

2"? 

14 

Hillsborough 

Tampa               

48 

18 

Madison 

Madison         

133 

43 

Polk 

Bartow  

18 

16 

Total    .        .    . 

286 

165 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  agencies  for  the  preparation 
of  prospective  teachers,  others  have  been  provided  through  non- 
state  effort.  I  refer  to  the  private  normals  and  the  teacher- 
training  courses  of  the  private  and  denominational  colleges.  Like 
the  state  institutions  of  higher  education,  quite  a  number  of  the 
private  and  denominational  schools  have  rendered  noteworthy 
service  in  promoting  the  educational  development  of  the  State. 
A  department  of  education  has  been  maintained  at  John  B.  Stet- 
son University  since  i897,57  and  practically  all  other  non-state 
institutions  of  collegiate  rank  have  given,  almost  from  the  time 
of  their  establishment,  some  excellent  courses  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers. 

The  Examination  and  Certification  of  Teachers. — Another 
factor  which  has  contributed  considerably  in  raising  the  standard 
of  the  teaching  corps  has  been  the  improvement  in  examining 
and  certificating  teachers.  The  first  advance  was  made  in  1893, 
when  a  law  was  enacted  creating  a  state  uniform  system  of  ex- 
amination and  certification.58  This  law  provided  for  the  granting 
of  six  forms  of  certificates  —  third-grade,  second-grade,  first- 
grade,  state,  state  life,  and  primary  life.  The  first  three  of  these 
were  to  be  issued  by  the  county  superintendent,  but  only  upon 
examination  given  in  specified  subjects  and  held  on  specified 
days,  all  examinations  to  be  on  questions  prepared  and  sent  out 
by  the  state  superintendent  and  the  papers  of  all  examinees 
graded  by  a  committee  of  three  leading  teachers  selected  by  the 
county  board  of  education.  They  were  to  be  good  for  one,  two, 

57  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1896-98,  p.  326. 

58  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1893,  Chap.  4192. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  189 

and  three  years,  respectively,  but  only  in  the  county  issued,  ex- 
cepting the  first-grade  certificate,  which  was  to  be  good  in  any 
county  when  endorsed  by  the  superintendent  of  that  county. 
However,  no  teacher  was  to  be  granted  more  than  one  third- 
grade  certificate,  nor  more  than  two  second-grade  certificates. 
The  other  three  certificates  —  state,  state  life,  and  primary  life  — 
were  to  be  issued  by  the  state  superintendent,  the  state  certificate 
to  be  issuable  only  to  persons  who  had  at  least  twenty-four 
months'  experience  in  teaching  and  had  taught  at  least  eight 
months  in  Florida  under  a  first-grade  certificate,  the  state  life 
certificate  only  to  eminently  successful  teachers  who  were  en- 
dorsed by  three  persons  holding  state  certificates  and  who  had 
taught  at  least  thirty  months  in  a  high  school  of  the  State  under 
a  state  certificate,  and  the  primary  life  certificate  only  to  em- 
inently successful  primary  teachers  who  had  taught  three  years 
in  the  State.  These  certificates  were  to  be  good  in  any  part  of 
the  State,  the  first  for  a  period  of  five  years,  and  the  last  two 
for  life.  The  law  provided,  also,  that  any  of  the  six  forms 
of  certificates  could  be  revoked  by  the  authority  granting  it, 
whenever  the  holder  proved  unsuccessful,  incompetent  or  im- 
moral. 

As  in  all  pronounced  reforms,  particularly  in  educational 
affairs,  the  opposition  to  this  law  was  at  first  very  bitter,  coming 
mainly  from  the  non-progressive  elements  of  the  teaching  pro- 
fession.59 Construing  this  opposition  as  adverse  public  sentiment, 
the  legislature  of  1895  amended  the  law  by  stripping  it  of  several 
of  its  progressive  features.60  It  made  the  third-  and  second-grade 
certificates  good  for  two  and  three  years,  respectively,  and  re- 
issuable  indefinitely;  struck  out  the  provision  for  primary  life 
certificates  to  eminently  successful  primary  teachers,  but  without 
invalidating  those  already  issued;  and  made  the  second-grade 
certificate,  also,  good  in  any  county  when  endorsed  by  the  super- 
intendent of  that  county.  In  addition  to  these  amendments,  a 
few  others  were  made,  but  the  only  really  progressive  feature 
added  was  the  provision  for  granting,  without  examination,  a 
first-grade  certificate  to  any  graduate  from  either  of  the  state 
normal  schools.  Despite  the  retrogressive  features,  however,  the 

59  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  81-86. 

60  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1895,  Chap.  4331. 


190  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

system  of  examination  and  certification  was  still  considerably 
better  than  it  had  ever  been  prior  to  1893.  It  continued  to  be,  as 
it  had  been  since  1893,  a  significant  factor  in  improving  the 
scholarship  of  the  teaching  body.61 

Since  1895  there  have  been  many  changes  in  the  system  of 
examining  and  certificating  teachers,  the  first  of  any  importance 
being  in  1903,  when  the  legislature  passed  another  certification 
law.62  This  law  repealed  the  provisions  for  aged  teachers'  cer- 
tificates, made  in  190 1,63  but  without  canceling  those  already 
issued.  It  made  the  third-,  second-,  and  first-grade  certificates 
good  for  two,  four,  and  five  years,  respectively,  instead  of  two, 
three,  and  four,  as  they  had  been  since  1895,  and  all  of  them 
good  in  any  county  when  endorsed  by  the  superintendent  of 
that  county.  It  restored  the  primary  certificate,  which  was  re- 
pealed in  1895,  making  it  issuable  by  the  state  superintendent 
to  applicants  furnishing  satisfactory  proof  of  peculiar  fitness  for 
primary  teaching  and  making  a  grade  of  eighty  per  cent  in 
an  examination  on  primary  studies  and  methods,  and  good  for 
four  years  in  the  first,  second,  and  third  grades  of  the  primary  de- 
partments of  regularly  graded  schools  and  in  public  kindergartens, 
or  for  life  after  four  years  of  successful  teaching  under  the  cer- 
tificate and  upon  the  endorsement  of  the  state  superintendent.  It 
provided  for  a  special  certificate,  making  it  issuable  by  the  state 
superintendent,  also,  to  applicants  furnishing  satisfactory  proof 
of  peculiar  fitness  for  teaching  any  one  or  more  branches  not 
included  in  the  requirements  for  a  second-grade  certificate  and 
making  a  grade  of  not  less  than  ninety  per  cent  in  an  examination 
on  such  branch  or  branches,  and  good  for  five  years  in  the 
special  branch  or  branches  for  which  issued.  The  requirements 
for  the  third-grade,  second-grade,  first-grade,  state,  and  state 
life  certificates  were  left  practically  the  same  as  they  had  been 
since  1893.  It  provided  for  a  first-grade  life  certificate,  making 
it  issuable  by  the  superintendent  of  any  county,  without  further 
examination,  to  teachers  presenting  satisfactory  evidence  of  good 
moral  character  and  of  having  taught  successfully  in  the  State 
for  six  years  under  first-grade  certificates  with  an  average  of 

61  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  p.  24. 

62  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5204. 

63  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1901,  Chap.  4995. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  191 

not  less  than  ninety  per  cent  and  issued  since  January  I,  1894, 
and  good  in  any  county  when  endorsed  by  the  superintendent 
of  that  county.  It  provided,  also,  for  life  extension  of  first-grade 
certificates,  such  extension  to  be  granted  by  any  county  super- 
intendent, upon  examination,  to  holders  of  such  certificates  pre- 
senting satisfactory  evidence  of  good  moral  character  and  of 
having  taught  successfully  in  the  State  for  twenty  years,  nine 
of  these  under  certificates  issued  since  January  I,  1894. 

Another  important  change  was  made  in  1913,  when  the  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  to  enable  all  graduates  of  the  normal  or 
collegiate  departments  of  tne  University  of  Florida  and  the 
Florida  State  College  for  Women,  and  of  any  other  college  or 
university  in  the  State  that  would  submit  to  such  inspection  and 
regulations  as  the  state  board  of  education  and  the  state  board 
of  control  might  prescribe,  to  secure  from  the  state  superintendent 
a  state  certificate,  provided  they  had  devoted  one  fifth  of  their 
time  in  the  collegiate  departments  to  professional  training,  and 
in  the  examinations  at  the  close  of  the  junior  and  senior  years 
had  made  "  a  general  average  of  not  less  than  eighty-five  per 
cent  on  all  subjects,  with  a  grade  of  not  less  than  sixty  per  cent  » 
on  any  subject."  64  Four  years  later  this  law  was  considerably 
amended,65  the  principal  amendment  being  the  provision  for  the 
issuance  of  a  life  graduate  state  certificate  by  the  state  superin- 
tendent, without  further  examination,  "  to  any  teacher  holding 
a  graduate  state  certificate  who  has  successfully  taught  in  this 
State  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  months  under  a  graduate  state 
certificate,  and  who  shall  present  satisfactory  endorsement  from 
three  persons  holding  life  certificates  showing  eminent  ability 
in  teaching  and  school  government." 

Still  another  important  change  was  made  in  1915,  when  a 
law  was  enacted  providing  for  the  extension  of  certificates.66 
According  to  this  act  any  unexpired  Florida  teacher's  certificate 
may  be  extended  one  year  by  the  holder  thereof  furnishing  the 
state  superintendent  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  attended  one 
of  the  state  summer  schools  and  having  credit  for  work  done 
therein,  and  such  certificate  may  be  extended  one  year  for  each 
succeeding  session  attended. 

64  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6540. 

65  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7373- 

66  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1915,  Chap.  6835. 


192  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

But  the  most  significant  changes  in  the  system  of  examining 
and  certificating  teachers  were  effected  in  1917  by  the  passage 
of  the  new  examination  and  certification  law.67  The  various 
provisions  of  this  law  will  be  given  in  Chapter  X.  To  avoid 
too  much  repetition,  therefore,  we  shall  notice  only  the  chief 
one  here  —  the  provision  for  a  state  board  of  examiners.  This 
board  is  composed  of  three  eminently  successful  teachers  ap- 
pointed by  the  state  board  of  education  upon  the  nomination 
of  the  state  superintendent.  Its  principal  duties  are  to  prepare 
all  examination  questions,  to  conduct  all  examinations,  to  grade 
all  examinations  except  as  may  be  provided  by  the  state  board  of 
education,  and  "to  report  weekly  to  the  state  superintendent 
the  name  of  each  examinee  with  the  grade  made  on  each  sub- 
ject and  the  grade  of  certificate  to  which  each  is  entitled."  The 
questions  must  be  of  such  nature  as  to  test  "  the  ability  to  teach 
rather  than  verbal  memory  and  a  knowledge  of  specific  facts," 
and  the  examinations  must  be  "as  uniform  in  the  conduct,  in 
the  grading,  and  in  the  question  tests  as  may  be  possible  without 
repetition  of  the  same  questions."  One  examination  must  be 
held  in  four  or  more  different  sections  of  the  State  every  month, 
and  one  in  each  county  every  year,  and  a  printed  schedule  of 
the  places  and  dates  of  all  the  examinations  must  be  sent  to 
each  county  superintendent  in  July  of  the  preceding  year.  As 
Superintendent  Sheats  says,  this  system  of  examining  teachers 
has  already  proven  a  success.  It  has  helped  to  raise  the  quali- 
fications of  the  teaching  body  and  to  guard  against  those  un- 
qualified for  the  profession.68 

The  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service. — Still  another  factor 
which  has  helped  to  increase  the  quality  of  the  teaching  force 
has  been  the  improvement  in  facilities  for  training  teachers  while 
in  service.  During  the  first  four  years  of  the  present  period 
practically  the  only  facilities  for  this  training  consisted  of  annual 
state  teachers'  associations  of  one  week's  duration,  annual  county 
teachers'  associations  or  institutes  of  one  or  more  days'  duration, 
and  a  few  teachers'  summer  training  schools  of  one  month's  dura- 
tion, these  schools  being  held,  for  the  most  part,  under  county 

67  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1917,   Chap.  7372. 

68  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  42;  cf.  Bien.  Rep. 
of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  pp.  47-52. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  193 

control  and  at  county  expense.69  But,  realizing  the  importance  of 
better-trained  teachers,  and  also  the  value  of  teachers'  summer 
training  schools  as  a  "  means  of  improving  the  work  of  those  en- 
gaged in  teaching,"  the  legislature  of  1897  passed  an  act  to  pro- 
vide for  such  schools  for  the  teachers  of  both  races.70  The  sum  of 
$3,000  for  each  of  the  years  1897  and  1898  was  appropriated 
for  this  purpose,  the  schools  to  be  of  two  months'  duration, 
and  to  be  held  at  such  times  and  places  as  the  state  superin- 
tendent should  designate.  Similar  appropriations  were  made  by 
the  legislatures  of  iSox),71  i9oi,72  and  lo/^.73  The  schoofs  that 
were  provided  were  taught  by  the  leading  teachers  of  the  State 
and  were  quite  well  attended  by  the  teachers  of  both  races.7* 

Another  advanced  legislative  step  along  this  line  was  the  pro- 
vision for  holding  teachers'  summer  training  schools  at  the  three 
state  institutions  of  higher  learning.  This  step  was  first  taken 
in  1905,  when  the  state  board  of  control  was  vested  with  this 
power.75  The  sum  of  $2,500  was  appropriated  for  that  and  the 
ensuing  year  to  carry  out  the  provision.76  For  the  continuation 
of  these  schools  the  legislature  of  1907  appropriated  $4,000  for 
that  and  the  ensuing  year.77  Similar  appropriations  were  made 
by  the  legislatures  of  1909,  1911,  and  I9I3-78  However,  the 
summer  school  act  passed  by  the  legislature  of  1913  differed 

69  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  107-13 ;  and  Bien. 
Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  pp.  54-62. 

As  these  report's  show,  the  sum  of  $4,500  was  received  from  the  Pea- 
body  Fund  to  help  maintain  the  teachers'  institutes  and  summer  training 
schools. 

70  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1897,  Chap.  4566. 

71  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1899,  chaP-  46Sl- 

72  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1901,  Chap.  4996. 

73  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1903,  Chap.  5208. 

74  The  annual  reports  of  these  schools,  given  in  the  various  biennial 
reports  of  the  state  superintendent,  show  that  the  average  annual  enroll- 
ment for  both  races  was  587,  of  whom  366  were  whites  and  181  negroes. 
The  average  attendance  for  1897-1902,  the  figures  for  1903  and  1904  not 
being  given,  was  410,  of  whom  289  were  whites  and  121  negroes. 

75  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5384,  Sec.  21. 

70  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  p.  12. 

77  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  pp.  301  and  312. 

78  See  the  annual   reports   of   these  schools,   given  in  the  various  bi- 
ennial reports  of  the  state  superintendent. 


194  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

in  many  respects  from  those  passed  by  previous  legislatures.79 
It  made  the  summer  school  for  teachers  a  fixed  and  permanent 
institution.  Such  a  school  was  established  at  each  of  the  state 
institutions  of  higher  education  and  placed  under  the  control 
of  the  state  board  of  public  instruction.  The  board  was  author- 
ized and  directed  to  hold  sessions  of  one  or  more  of  these 
schools  each  summer,  the  sessions  to  begin  not  later  than  June 
1 5th  and  to  continue  not  less  than  eight  weeks.80  The  president 
of  the  university  of  Florida  and  the  president  of  the  Florida 
State -College  for  Women  were  made  president,  respectively,  of 
the  summer  school  connected  with  each  of  said  institutions ; 81 
and  the  presidents  of  these  two  institutions,  together  with  the  state 
superintendent,  were  constituted  a  board  to  select  the  teachers 
for  all  the  state  summer  schools,  to  prescribe  the  courses  of  study 
therefor,  and  to  make  such  further  rules  and  regulations  govern- 
ing the  same  as  they  should  deem  proper.  And  finally,  it  pro- 
vided that  any  teacher  could  have  his  or  her  certificate  extended 
one  year  by  attending  one  of  these  schools  and  securing  credit 
for  work  done  therein.  As  one  would  expect,  therefore,  these 
schools,  especially  those  held  since  1913,  have  been  well  attended 
by  the  teachers  of  both  races.82  It  may  also  be  said  that  they 
have  been  taught  by  competent  and  well-trained  men  and  women 
and  have  rendered  valuable  service  to  the  puplic-school  teachers 
of  the  State. 

Other  agencies  that  have  been  provided  for  improving  the 
work  of  those  engaged  in  teaching  have  been  the  school  inspectors 
or  supervisors.  Since  1907  the  State  has  been  provided  with 
a  high-school  inspector,  whose  expenses  have  been  borne  largely 

79  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1913,  Chap.  6498. 

80  Two  years  later  the  law  was  amended  to  make  the  sessions  begin 
not  later  than  June  28th  and  continue  not  less  than  ten  weeks  (see  Laws 
of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6835). 

81  Two  years  later  the  president  of  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College    for    Negroes   was   made   president   of   the    summer   school   con- 
nected with  that  institution  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6835). 

82  The  annual  reports  of  these  schools,  given  in  the  various  biennial 
reports  of  the  state  superintendent,  show  that  the  average  annual  enroll- 
ment  for   both   races    during  the   five-year   period    1914-18  was   857,   of 
whom  737  were  whites   and   120  negroes.     The   average  attendance   for 
this  same  period  was  747,  of  whom  642  were  whites  and  105  negroes. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  195 

by  the  General  Education  Board.  However,  the  person  who  has 
held  this  position  has  never  devoted  all  his  time  to  the  work 
of  visiting  and  supervising  high  schools,  for  he  has  also  been 
professor  of  secondary  education  at  the  state  university.  Never- 
theless, as  Superintendent  Sheats  says,  he  has  done  his  work 
well  and  performed  a  valuable  service  to  the  high-school  teachers 
of  the  State.83  A  similar  provision  has  been  made  for  the 
public  elementary  schools,  also.  The  first  step  was  taken  in  1911, 
when  the  State  was  provided  with  an  elementary  rural  school 
inspector,  an  officer  whose  expenses  were  borne  entirely  by  the 
Southern  Education  Board.  Professor  George  M.  Lynch,  whom 
the  board  selected  for  this  important  position,  gave  all  his  time 
to  visiting  and  supervising  the  elementary  rural  schools,84  By 
1913  his  services  had  proven  so  valuable  that  the  legislature 
of  that  year  passed  an  act  providing  for  two  rural  school  in- 
spectors.85 These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  governor  upon 
the  nomination  of  the  state  superintendent.86  They  are  required 
to  devote  all  their  time  to  the  work  of  visiting  and  supervising 
rural  schools  and  performing  such  educational  work,  when  the 
schools  are  not  in  operation,  as  may  be  required  of  them  by 
the  state  board  of  education.  They  are  required,  also,  to  work 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent.  Their  salaries 

83  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  pp.  52  and  293. 

The  first  inspector  was  Prof.  George  M.  Lynch,  who  resigned  in  1911 
to  become  state  inspector  of  elementary  rural  schools.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Dr.  John  A.  Thackston,  who  served  until  1915,  when  he  resigned  to 
become  professor  of  education  at  the  University  of  Tennessee.  Since 
then  the  position  has  been  held  by  Prof.  W.  S.  Cawthon. 

84  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  pp.  243  and  294. 

85  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6539. 

86  The  first  appointees  to  these  positions  were  Prof.  George  M.  Lynch, 
who    had    been    employed    for    two    years    in    a    similar    work    by    the 
Southern  Education  Board,  and  Hon.  Shelton   Philips,  ex-superintendent 
of  schools  of  Levy  County.     Both  began  their  work  July  i,  1913.    Prof. 
Lynch  resigned  September  i,  1915,  to  resume  the  work  of  teaching.     He 
was   succeeded  by  Hon.  R.  L.  Turner,   county  superintendent  of  Citrus 
County.     Mr.  Philips,  however,  served  in  this  capacity  until  July  i,  1919, 
when  he  was  appointed  state  director  for  vocational  education.     He  was 
succeeded  by  Hon.  W.  B.  Feagle,  of  High  Springs.     Mr.  Feagle  resigned 
October  i,  1920,  when  Miss  Christian  McDonald,  of  DeFuniak  Springs, 
was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy. 


196 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


and  traveling  expenses  are  provided  for  by  annual  state  appropri- 
ations. As  in  other  states,  these  officers  have  rendered  invaluable 
service  in  improving  the  efficiency  of  the  teachers  of  the  rural 
schools.87 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  agencies  for  the  improvement  of 
those  already  engaged  in  teaching,  valuable  service  has  been 
rendered,  also,  by  the  annual  state  teachers'  association,  which 
has  always  been  greatly  stressed  by  the  state  superintendent, 
the  summer  schools  for  teachers  that  have  been  held  by  various 
county  boards  of  education,  and  the  educational  journals 
which  have  been  taken  by  the  teachers.  This  is  partially  shown 
by  the  following  table. 


TABLE  XXIV 

STATISTICS  RELATING  TO  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS  ATTENDING  SUMMER 

SCHOOLS   AND   STATE  TEACHERS'   ASSOCIATIONS   AND  TAKING 

EDUCATIONAL  JOURNALS  ( 1897-1920) 88 


1897- 
98 

1902- 
03 

1907- 

08 

1912- 
13 

1917- 
18 

1919- 

20 

Attending  summer  schools: 
Both  races 

Q7^ 

60  T 

555 

781 

I  019 

I  113 

White 

712 

465 

46l 

658 

Q-7Q 

002 

Negro 

261 

n8 

Q4 

I2< 

80 

211 

Attending  state  associations: 
Both  races 

488 

185 

460 

42  c; 

58l 

825 

White      . 

-2Q1 

282 

•2^4 

•244 

AC2 

56l 

Negro 

185 

IO1 

1^5 

81 

120 

264 

Taking  educational  journals: 
Both  races    

1,672 

1,661 

Ii5H 

1,901 

2,684 

-2,270 

White      

1,255 

1,225 

1,126 

1,510 

2,185 

2,688 

Negro  

417 

4"?6 

^85 

391 

499 

591 

The  Salaries  of  Teachers. — Another  important  factor,  partly  a 
cause,  and  partly  a  consequence  of  the  improvement  that  has 
taken  place  in  regard  to  the  teaching  body,  has  been  the  large 
increase  in  the  compensation  of  the  teachers.  The  average 
monthly  salary  of  teachers  for  1893-94  was  $34.50,  and  the 
average  length  of  school  term  was  4.85  months.  The  average 
annual  salary,  therefore,  was  $167.32.  The  average  monthly  sal- 

87  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  55. 

88  This  table  has  been  prepared  from  figures  given  in  various  reports 
of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


197 


ary  of  teachers  for  1919-20  was  $79.80,  and  the  average  length  of 
school  term  was  6.65  months.  The  average  annual  salary,  there- 
fore, was  $530.67.  As  is  shown  by  these  figures,  the  compen- 
sation of  teachers  has  more  than  doubled  since  1893.  The 
progress  along  this  line  is  well  shown  by  the  following  table. 

TABLE   XXV 
AVERAGE  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS  DURING  THE  PERIOD  1893-1920 


1893-94 

1897-98 

1902-03 

1907-08 

1912-13 

1917-18 

1919-20 

Average  monthly  sal- 
aries of  teachers:0 
All  teachers 

t-lA     CO 

$0-7    7-1 

$12  78 

$44  6O 

$C2  57 

$60  72 

t    7O  80 

White  males  
White  females  .  . 
Negro  males  .... 
Negro  females  .  . 
Average  length  of 
school    term     in 
months:6 
Both  races.  .  .  . 

38-25 

35-25 
30.00 

28.75 
A  Re 

38.66 
33.96 
28.85 
26.73 

S2O 

45-49 
32.13 
30.50 
20.92 

52C. 

67.90 
44.26 
37.65 
27.22 

f  4.0 

74-40 

53-00 

37.38 
32.04 

6  oo 

91.05 
60.98 
47-93 
32.23 

6  50 

II9.8O 
81.00 

61.20 

43.20 

6  65 

White 

4'«5 

57O 

5e  e 

e  no 

6  70 

7   TO 

7    jo 

Negro 

4-95 

A    QC 

A  7e 

4  OC, 

4  80 

5    JO 

See 

Average    yearly    sal- 
aries of  teachers:6 
All  teachers  

•75 
$167  77 

$I7<>.40 

$I72.IO 

$241.77 

$-11  c.i8 

$704  68 

Je.7O.67 

White  males  
White  females  .  . 
Negro  males  .... 
Negro  females  .  . 

189.34 
174-49 
142.50 
136.56 

204.90 
179.99 
142.81 
132.31 

252.47 
178.32 
144.88 

99-37 

380.24 
247.86 
186.37 
134.74 

498.48 
355-10 
179.42 
153-79 

646.46 
432.96 
244.44 
164.37 

850.58 

575-10 
339.66 
239.76 

0  The  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  state  superintendent's  re- 
ports for  the  years  for  which  the  figures  are  given. 

6  The  figures  given  here  have  been  obtained  by  dividing  the  average  length  of 
the  school  term  in  days,  as  given  in  the  reports  of  the  state  superintendent,  by 
twenty,  which  is  the  length  of  the  school  month  in  days. 

c  The  figures  given  here  have  been  obtained  by  multiplying  the  average  monthly 
salaries  of  the  teachers  by  the  length  of  the  school  term  in  months. 


IV.    THE  FINANCING  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

Thus  far,  in  evidences  of  growth  and  advancement  in  public 
education  as  revealed  by  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in 
the  system  of  instruction,  the  environment  and  equipment  of  the 
schools,  and  the  teaching  body  have  been  discussed.  Another 
evidence  that  is  deserving  of  mention  is  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  financing  the  public-school  system.  In  discussing  this 


198  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

topic  attention  will  be  given  to  the  following  sub-topics:  (i) 
school  expenditures,  (2)  school  funds  and  taxation,  and  (3)  ap- 
portionment of  the  school  funds. 

School  Expenditures. — The  increase  in  the  annual  expenditure 
for  public-school  education  in  recent  years  is  very  significant. 
Since  1892  the  increase  for  each  pupil  in  average  attendance 
has  been  from  $8.71  to  $42.25,  or  a  gain  of  385  per  cent.  For 
each  pupil  of  school  age  the  expenditure  has  increased  from  $3.76 
to  $22.65,  or  a  gain  of  503  per  cent.  The  total  annual  ex- 
penditure has  increased  from  $542,098.06  to  $7,003,188.38,  or  a 
gain  of  1,192  per  cent.  As  is  seen,  the  growth  of  this  form 
of  expenditure  has  been  very  rapid.  It  has  also  been  constant, 
as  is  shown  by  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

School  Funds  and  Taxation. — To  meet  the  demands  of  the 
people  for  better  schools  and  longer  terms  the  school  officers 
found  it  absolutely  necessary  to  have  more  liberal  provisions 
for  the  support  of  public  education.  During  the  years  1892-1904 
the  public-school  income  was  entirely  inadequate,  many  of  the 
counties  which  had  already  levied  the  maximum  school-tax 
being  compelled  to  go  in  debt  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  schools 
that  were  provided.89  As  Superintendent  Sheats  said,  further 
development  of  the  public-school  system  was  almost  impossible 
without  an  increase  in  the  public-school  income.90  To  effect 
this  development  there  have  been  a  number  of  provisions  looking 
to  an  increase  in  the  annual  income  for  public  education.  Three 
of  these  deserve  mention.  The  first  was  in  1904,  when  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  was  adopted  raising  the  maximum  rate  of 
millage  to  be  assessed  in  each  county  for  school  purposes  from 
five  to  seven  mills  on  the  dollar.91  The  next  was  in  1912,  when 
the  constitution  was  amended  to  allow  an  additional  school-tax 
of  five  mills  on  the  dollar  in  any  special-tax  school-district 
where  a  majority  of  the  qualified  electors  thereof  have  voted 
for  the  issuance  of  bonds  for  the  exclusive  use  of  public  free 
schools  within  such  district.92  In  1918  another  constitutional 

80  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  pp.  41,  47-48. 

90  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1896-98,  p.  38. 

91  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  £-9. 

92  See  Digest  of  the  School  Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida  (compiled 
by  W.  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1915),  pp. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING 


199 


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200  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

amendment  was  adopted  fixing  the  maximum  county  school-tax 
at  ten  instead  of  seven  mills  on  the  dollar.94  Thus  we  see  that 
the  people  of  Florida  have  proven  their  willingness  to  provide 
for  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the  State. 

Apportionment  of  the  School  Funds. — Since  1892  there  has 
been  one  rather  important  change  in  regard  to  the  method  of 
apportioning  the  school  funds.  It  was  made  in  1894,  when  an 
amendment  to  the  constitution  was  adopted  requiring  all  state 
funds  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  free  schools95 
to  be  distributed  among  the  several  counties  of  the  State  in 
proportion  to  the  average  attendance  at  school,  instead  of  the 
number  of  school  youth.96  As  Superintendent  Sheats  said,97  this 
new  method  of  apportioning  the  funds  had  a  tendency  to  correct 
the  inequality  of  the  old  school-census  method.  It  has  also 
helped  considerably  in  equalizing  educational  opportunities  and 
in  stimulating  local  effort  to  get  the  children  into  school.  In 
my  opinion,  it  may  still  be  relied  upon  as  a  factor  in  the  future 
development  of  public  education  in  the  State. 

SUMMARY 

During  the  present  period  (1892-1921)  there  has  been  a  con- 
tinuous growth  of  interest,  and  also  the  enactment  of  new  and 
improved  legislation,  regarding  the  environment  and  equipment 
of  the  public  schools  of  Florida.  As  a  result,  more  suitable 
school  plants  have  been  provided;  greater  provision  has  been 
made  for  guarding  the  health  of  the  pupils ;  and  better  and  more 
adequate  textbooks  have  been  secured. 

During  this  period  notable  progress  has  been  made  in  respect 
to  the  teaching  body.  There  has  been  a  marked  increase  in 
the  number  of  those  employed  to  teach,  and  also  in  their  fitness 
for  service.  Better  provision  has  been  made  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  prospective  teachers.  There  has  been  a  great  improve- 

94  See  Laws  Relating  to  Education  Enacted  by  the  Florida  Legislature 
of  1917  and  jp/p  (compiled  by  W.  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  1919),  p.  i. 

95  The  chief  source  is  the  one-mill  tax  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable 
property  in  the  State,  which  furnishes  over  eight  per  cent  of  the  money 
used  in  financing  the  public  free  schools. 

98  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  p.  54. 
97  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  47. 


THE  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  AWAKENING  201 

ment  in  the  system  of  examination  and  certification.  Better 
facilities  have  been  provided  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
service.  And  the  average  annual  salary  of  the  teachers  has 
more  than  doubled. 

Lastly,  there  has  been  a  great  advance  with  regard  to  financing 
the  public-school  system.  In  the  first  place,  the  annual  school 
expenditure  has  greatly  increased.  Secondly,  the  people  of  the 
State  have  voted  three  different  times  for  more  liberal  provisions 
for  the  support  of  schools.  And,  in  the  third  place,  a  better 
method  of  apportioning  the  school  funds  has  been  adopted. 


CHAPTER     IX 

SOME  FACTORS  FAVORING  THE  RECENT  ADVANCE 
OF  EDUCATION 

Having  reviewed  the  recent  advance  of  public  education  in 
Florida,  we  shall  now  turn  our  attention  for  a  while  to  the  factors 
that  have  proven  favorable  to  this  advance.  We  have  already 
noticed  rather  briefly  some  of  them ;  but  in  this  chapter  we  shall 
consider  some  additional  ones.  In  the  first  place,  let  us  notice 
the  growth  of  population  as  one  of  these  factors. 

The  Growth  of  Population. — According  to  the  United  States 
census,  in  1890  the  total  population  of  Florida  was  only  391,422 
—  the  white  224,949  and  the  colored  166,473.  Moreover,  the 
inhabitants  were  sparsely  distributed,  some  places  being  very 
thinly  inhabited.  Such  a  condition,  of  course,  was  quite  un- 
favorable to  intellectual  and  educational  activity.  But  since  then 
there  has  been  a  rapid  and  persistent  growth  of  population  in 
practically  every  part  of  the  State.  By  1900  the  total  number 
of  inhabitants  had  increased  to  528,542  —  the  white  297,333, 
the  colored  231,209  j1  by  1910  to  752,619 —  the  white  443,634, 
the  colored  308,985  ; 2  and  by  1920  to  966,210  —  the  white  605,356, 
the  colored  36o,854.3  In  other  words,  since  1890  the  colored 
population  has  increased  117  per  cent,  and  the  white  170.  As 
is  evident,  therefore,  this  increase  in  the  number  of  inhabitants 
is  one  explanation  of  the  recent  development  of  public  education 
in  the  State. 

The  Increase  of  Wealth. — Parallel  with  the  rapid  growth  of 
population  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  of  wealth  throughout 
Florida  since  1898.  In  1898  the  assessed  value  of  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  State  was  only  $95,117,156.*  As  the  sources  of  the 
income  for  public  free-school  purposes  were,  and  still  are,  found 

1  United  States  census  of  1900. 

2  United  States  census  of  1910. 

3  United  States  census  of  1920. 

4  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1896-98,  p.  150. 

202 


FACTORS  FAVORING  ADVANCE  OF  EDUCATION         203 

mainly  in  the  taxable  property,  —  about  eight  per  cent  of  the 
income  being  derived  from  these  sources  —  this  low  valuation 
thereon  accounts  for  the  fact  that  in  every  county  the  school 
funds  were  very  inadequate.  Though  three  fourths  of  the  coun- 
ties, and  many  of  the  school  districts,  levied  the  maximum 
school  tax  allowed  by  the  constitution,5  the  public  free-school 
funds  for  1897-98  amounted  to  but  $683,5686  —  only  about  $4 
for  each  child  of  school  age.  As  is  patent,  this  condition,  like 
that  of  the  scattered  population,  was  very  unfavorable  to  the 
development  of  free  schools.  Since  then,  however,  the  value 
of  the  taxable  property  of  the  State  has  increased  greatly.  By 
1908  it  had  increased  to  $152,541,453  ; 7  by  1913  to  $211,421,596; 8 
by  1918  to  $322,2 1 6,072  ;&  and  by  1920  to  $356,88o,287.10  As 
a  result  of  this  increase,  to  a  large  extent,  the  public  free-school 
income  has  also  increased  greatly.  The  total  receipts  for  1907-08, 
excluding  loans  and  balance  on  hand,  amounted  to  $i, 428,1 65, n 
or  about  $6  per  school  youth;  for  1912-13  $2,231,544,^  or  more 
than  $8  per  school  youth;  for  1917-18  $4,494,568,^  or  more 
than  $14  per  school  youth;  and  for  1919-20  $i 0,704,403,"  or 
more  than  $34  per  school  youth.  This  increase  of  wealth,  then, 
is  another  explanation  of  the  recent  advance  of  public  education. 
The  Growth  of  Public  Interest  in  Free  Schools. — But  perhaps 
the  chief  factor  has  been  the  growth  of  public  interest  in  free 
schools.  For  several  years  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  universal 
education  has  been  rapidly  growing  among  the  people  throughout 
the  State.  This  is  evident  by  the  willingness  with  which  they 
have  supported  the  schools.  The  table  on  the  following  page 
shows  how  the  counties  have  taxed  themselves  for  their  support. 
As  will  be  seen  in  this  table  in  1892-93  only  twenty-four  coun- 
ties levied  the  maximum  school  tax  allowed  by  the  constitution; 

s  Ibid.,  p.  38. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  21. 

7  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  p.  447. 

8  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  85. 

9  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  135. 

10  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  119. 

11  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  p.  450. 

12  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  89. 

13  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  26. 

14  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  123. 


204 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


whereas  in  1917-18  every  county  was  levying  the  maximum, 
which  in  the  meantime  had  Been  'increased  from  five  to  seven  mills 
on  the  dollar;15  and  in  1919-20  every  county  but  nine  was 
levying  the  maximum,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  had  been  increased 
the  year  before  from  seven  to  ten  .mills.  In  1892-93  there  was 
not  a  single  special-tax  school-district.  But  in  1902-03  there 


TABLE  XXVII 

How  THE  COUNTIES  TAXED  THEMSELVES  FOR  THE  SUPPORT  OF   SCHOOLS 

( 1892-1920) 16 


1892- 
1893 

1897- 
1898 

1902- 
1903 

1907- 
1908 

1912- 

1913 

1917- 
1918 

1919- 
1920 

Number  of  counties  levying  10  mills 
(maximum  since  1918)  

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

AC 

Number  levying  9  mills  

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

«; 

Number  levying  83  mills  

o 

o 

o 

o 

I 

o 

I 

Number  levving  7^  mills  

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

1 

Number  levying  7  mills   (maximum 
1004—18) 

0 

o 

Q 

TO 

42 

CA 

2 

Number  levying  more  than  6  but  less 
than  7  mills 

Q 

o 

o 

5" 

o 

o 

Number  levying  6  mills  

o 

o 

o 

12 

o 

o 

o 

Number  levying  more  than  5  but  less 
than  6  mills 

Q 

o 

o 

•? 

2 

o 

o 

Number  levying  5  mills    (maximum 
1886—1904) 

21 

•3  A 

A  A 

7 

o 

o 

o 

Number  levying  more  than  4  but  less 
than  5  mills  

e 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Number  levying  4  mills  .  .    . 

g 

I 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Number  levying  more  than  3  but  less 
than  4  mills  

•2 

2 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Number  levying  3   mills    (minimum 
since  1886)  

4 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Total  number  of  counties  

4C 

4C 

45 

46 

48 

54 

54 

were  259  ;17  in  1912-13,  699  ;18  and  in  1919-20,  883,1&  many 
of  them  embracing  as  much  as  one  third  of  an  entire  county. 
During  this  period  the  county  revenue  for  public  education  in- 

15  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  8-9. 

16  The  figures  given  here  have  been  taken  from  the  various  reports 
of  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

17  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04,  p.  68. 

18  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  88. 

19  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  122. 


FACTORS  FAVORING  ADVANCE  OF  EDUCATION        205 

creased  from  $354,97420  to  $3,251,336; 21  and  the  revenue  de- 
rived from  district  taxes  increased  from  nothing20  to  $  1,4 19,1 3O.21 
Furthermore,  since  1912,  when  special-tax  school-districts  were 
allowed  to  issue  bonds  for  providing  school  buildings,  grounds, 
and  so  forth,22  quite  a  number  of  the  districts  have  bonded 
themselves  for  such  purposes.  Within  less  than  four  years  after 
they  had  been  given  this  privilege  over  $4,000,000  worth  of  bonds 
had  been  voted.23  Thus  we  see  that  there  has  been  a  rapid 
growth  of  public  interest  in  the  work  of  the  free  schools ;  and 
this,  to  repeat,  is  perchance  the  principal  explanation  of  the  re- 
cent educational  progress. 

Improved  School  Legislation. — Another  important  factor  has 
been  the  new  and  improved  school  legislation  that  has  been 
enacted.  While  this  has  not  been  the  most  important,  as  some 
people  are  inclined  to  believe,  it  has  certainly  been  requisite 
for  the  educational  development  of  the  State.  Among  the  ad- 
vanced legislative  steps  which  have  been  taken  to  promote  this 
development  are :  provisions  for  compulsory  school-attendance ; 24 
enlargement  and  enrichment  of  the  regular  public  elementary- 
and  secondary-school  curricula ; 25  promotion  of  the  teaching  of 
agriculture,  home  economics,  and  industrial  arts ; 2<J  the  estab- 
lishment of  reform  schools ; 27  the  provision  for  kindergartens ; 28 
the  consolidation  of  the  higher  educational  institutions ; 2*  pro- 
visions for  the  health  of  the  school  children ; 30  provisions  for 
uniform  textbooks  in  the  public  elementary  and  secondary 
schools ; 31  the  furnishing  of  free  textbooks  to  indigent  children ; 32 

20  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  p.  66. 

21  See  Bien.  Rep,  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  120. 

22  See  Digest  of  the  School  Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida  (compiled  by 
W.  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1915),  PP-  8-9 
and  59-62. 

23  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16,  p.  34. 
2*Vide  supra,  pp.  112  and  114. 

25  Ibid.,  pp.  115-21  and  123-31. 

26  Ibid.,  pp.  141-49. 

27  Ibid.,  pp.  150-51. 

28  Ibid.,  pp.  151-152. 

29  Ibid.,  p.  162. 

30  Ibid.,  pp.  172  and  174-75. 
81  Ibid.,  pp.  175-78. 

32  Ibid.,  pp.  178-79- 


206  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

the  providing  of  better  facilities  for  the  training  of  both  pros- 
pective and  active  teachers ; 33  improvement  of  the  system  of 
examining  and  certificating  teachers ; 34  provisions  for  increasing 
the  school-tax ; 35  apportioning  the  state  school-funds  on  the  basis 
of  average  attendance  at  school ; 36  the  giving  of  state  aid  for 
public  education ; 37  and  provisions  for  better  general  adminis- 
tration of  the  schools.37 

State  Aid. — Still  another  factor  in  the  educational  awakening 
has  been  the  system  of  state  aid.  Though  the  State  has  relied 
mainly  upon  local  taxes  for  the  support  of  education,  it  has 
contributed  cosiderably  for  this  purpose.  Besides  the  annual 
income  from  the  state  school-fund  and  the  one-mill  state  tax, 
which  has  been  distributed  among  the  several  counties  on  the 
basis  of  school  attendance,36  there  have  been  numerous  appropri- 
ations for  various  phases  of  public  education.  The  different  legis- 
latures have  certainly  been  quite  generous,  considering  the  pop- 
ulation and  wealth  of  the  State.  For  example,  since  1897  they 
have  made  appropriations  for  the  maintenance  of  teachers' 
summer  training  schools,  the  total  amount  appropriated  for  this 
purpose  during  the  period  1897-1918  being  $81,600; 38  in  1901 
and  1903  appropriations  were  made  for  the  carrying  on  of 
teacher-training  courses  in  the  normal  schools  at  DeFuniak 
Springs  and  St.  Petersburg,  the  amount  set  apart  for  this  work 
being  $38,000 ; 39  also  in  1903  the  sum  of  $50,000  per  annum 
was  appropriated  for  the  years  1903-04  and  1904-05  to  aid  all 
high  schools  meeting  certain  requirements  of  the  state  board 
of  education;40  in  1905  the  sum  of  $125,000  per  annum  was 
appropriated  to  aid  both  elementary  and  high  schools  during  the 
years  1905-06  and  1906-07; 41  that  same  year  the  sum  of  $191,000 

33  Ibid.,  pp.  179-88  and  192-96. 
**Ibid.,  pp.  188-92. 
ss  Ibid.,  p.  198. 

36  Ibid.,  p.  200. 

37  The  legislation  along  this  line  is  discussed  below. 

88  Vide  supra,  pp.  192-94 ;  and  the  reports  of  these  schools  in  the 
various  biennial  reports  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

39  Vide  supra,  pp.  181-82. 

40  Vide  supra,  pp.   127-29;  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1902-04, 
pp.  228-34;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  109-22. 

41  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  12-14  and  123- 
44;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  pp.  323-54- 

Under   the   provisions   of   Chapter   5381,   Laws    of    1905,   the   sum   of 


FACTORS  FAVORING  ADVANCE  OF  EDUCATION        207 

was  set  apart  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  the  three 
institutions  of  higher  education,42  and  since  then  the  apropri- 
ations  to  these  institutions  have  amounted  to  nearly  $1,500,000;  43 
two  years  later  the  legislature  continued  the  state  aid  to  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  schools,44  the  total  amount  set  apart  for 
this  purpose  being  $330,000; 45  since  1913  the  salaries  and  travel- 
ing expenses  of  two  rural  school  inspectors  have  been  provided 
for  by  annual  state  appropriations;46  in  1915  the  sum  of 
$18,384  was  appropriated  for  agricultural-extension  work  during 
the  biennium  191 5-1 7  ;47  that  same  year  the  sum  of  $50,000 
per  annum  was  appropriated"  for  the  maintenance  of  teacher- 
training  departments  in  high  schools;48  and  in  1917  the  legis- 
lature appropriated  $40,003  for  agricultural-extension  work,49 
and  $33,149  for  vocational  education,50  during  the  years  1917-18 
and  1918-19. 

National  Aid. — The  Federal  Government  also  has  contributed 
considerably  to  the  development  of  education  in  Florida.  Some 

$50,000  was  appropriated  to  continue  for  a  period  of  two  months  all 
schools  making  an  average  daily  attendance  of  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
total  enrollment  for  the  regular  term.  However,  the  appropriation  for 
1906-07  was  never  paid,  this  act  having  been  declared  unconstitutional 
by  the  supreme  court  of  Florida.  Under  the  provisions  of  Chapter  5382, 
the  sum  of  $50,000  was  also  appropriated  to  aid  all  schools  measuring 
up  to  the  standards  of  work  set  by  the  state  board  of  education.  Under 
the  provisions  of  Chapter  5383,  the  sum  of  $25,000  was  appropriated  to 
continue  for  a  period  of  one  month  all  schools  not  receiving  aid  under 
either  of  the  preceding  chapters. 

42  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  205-06. 

43  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  pp.  278-79;  1914-16, 
PP.  319-20;  and  1916-18,  p.  385. 

44  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1906-08,  pp.  13-14  and  355-82. 

45  However,  on  account  of  a  decision  of  the  supreme  court,  none  of 
this   seems   ever  to  have  been  paid    (see   Bien.   Rep.   of   Supt.   of   Pub. 
Ins.,   1908-10,  pp.  269-73;   and  Digest  of  School  Laws  of  the  State  of 
Florida,  compiled  by  State  Superintendent  W.  N.  Sheats,  1915,  pp.  47-50). 

46  Vide  supra,  pp.  195-96. 

4T  Vide  supra,  pp.  164-66;  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1914-16, 
PP-  336-39;  and  S.  R.  S.  Doc.  40  (Revised  Jan.  i,  1919),  P.  10. 

48  Vide  supra,  pp.  183-88. 

49  Vide  S.  R.  S.  Doc.  40  (Revised  Jan.  i,  1919),  p.  10. 

50  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  772-74. 

In  1919  the  legislature  appropriated  $75,000  for  this  purpose  (see  Laws 
of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7592)  ;  and  in  1921,  $90,205  (see  Laws  of  Florida, 
1921,  Chap.  8436). 


208  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  the  ways  in  which  it  has  aided  deserve  mentioning.  Since 
1892  it  has  given  the  State  $625,000  for  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  an  agricultural  experiment  station,51  and  $947,000 
for  "  the  more  complete  endowment  and  maintenance  of  col- 
leges for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  " ; 52 
during  the  period  1914-19  it  gave  $236,32553  for  agricultural-ex- 
tension work  in  the  State;  49  and  since  1917  approximately  $90,000 
has  been  appropriated  by  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  for  the  pro- 
motion of  vocational  education.54 

Private  Appropriations. — There  has  been  considerable  aid  from 
private  appropriations,  too.  During  the  ten-year  period  1893-1902 
the  sum  of  $11,750  was  received  from  the  Peabody  Educational 
Fund  for  the  maintenance  of  summer  schools  for  teachers.55 
In  1905  the  citizens  of  Gainesville  gave  $40,000  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  state  university,  and  500  acres  of  land  for  the  use 
of  the  university  and  agricultural  experiment  station.56  Since 
1907  the  General  Education  Board  has  appropriated  over  $20,000 
to  the  state  university  to  help  pay  the  salary  and  traveling  ex- 
penses of  a  professor  of  secondary  education  who  has  been  a 
regular  member  of  the  university  faculty  and  also  state  high- 
school  inspector.57  In  1911  the  Southern  Education  Board  gave 
the  university  $2,700  for  the  salary  and  traveling  expenses  of 

81  See  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  Hatch  Act  (1887),  in  U.  S. 
Stat.  at  L.,  xxiv,  440;  and  the  Adams  amendment  to  this  act  (1906),  in 
Laws,  59th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  Chap.  951. 

52  See  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  second  Morrill  Act  (1890),  in 
U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  xxvi,  417;  and  the  Nelson  amendment  to  this  act  (1907), 
in  U.  S.  Stat.  at  L.,  xxxiv,  1281. 

53  The  sum  of  $108,312  was  appropriated  from  the  Smith-Lever  funds, 
$120,348  from  the  farmers'  co-operative  demonstration  funds  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  $7,665  from  other  bureaus  and 
offices  of  this  department. 

84  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  772-74;  and  Bulle- 
tin No.  i,  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  p.  63. 

65  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  107  and  112; 
1894-96,  pp.  54-56;  1896-98,  pp.  49  and  63;  1898-1900,  pp.  128  and  138;  and 
1900-1902,  pp.  135  and  142. 

56  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06,  pp.  224-25. 

87  Vide  supra,  pp.  194-95 ;  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  pp. 
293-96;  The  General  Education  Board:  an  Account  of  its  Activities,  1902- 
14,  P-  93  J  and  Catalogue,  University  of  Florida,  1918-19,  p.  15. 


FACTORS  FAVORING  ADVANCE  OF  EDUCATION       209 

a  professor  of  elementary  education  and  state  inspector  of  ele- 
mentary rural  schools.58  The  following  year  the  Peabody  Board 
gave  the  State  $40,000  for  the  erection  and  equipment  of  a  build- 
ing for  the  use  of  the  Teachers  College  and  Normal  School  at 
the  university.59  In  addition  to  these  benefactions,  which  have 
been  the  most  important,  many  others  have  been  made.60 

The  Influence  of  Education  in  Other  States. — There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  education  in  Florida  also  owes  a  considerable  debt 
to  the  other  states  for  what  it  has  accomplished.  In  the  first 
place,  according  to  the  United  States  census  reports,  in  1900 
and  1910  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  State  were  born 
outside  of  the  State,61  most  of  them  being  natives  of  Georgia, 
South  Carolina,  Alabama,  North  Carolina,  New  York,  Virginia, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Mississippi, 
Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Massachusetts.62  Many  of  these  were 
from  places  that  had  excellent  schools;  and,  of  course,  they  car- 
ried with  them  to  their  new  homes  the  ideals  which  they  had 
imbibed  in  their  old  ones.  In  the  second  place,  during  the  last 
three  decades  a  large  number  of  people  from  other  states  have 
spent  the  winters  in  Florida.  These  also  have  affected  the  edu- 
cation of  the  State.  They  have  not  only  introduced  many  valu- 
able ideas  relative  to  public  education,  but  have  caused  the  places 
of  popular  resort  to  vie  with  each  other  in  providing  various 
advantages,  educational  and  otherwise.  In  the  third  place,  there 
has  not  been  a  time  during  this  period  when  several  youths  of 
Florida  were  not  being  educated  in  institutions  in  other  parts  of 

58  Vide  supra,  pp.  194-95 ;  and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1910- 
12;  pp.  161-62. 

This  gift  not  only  started  the  movement  for  rural-school  inspection,  but 
influenced  legislative  appropriations  for  this  purpose. 

59  Vide  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1910-12,  pp.  159-60;  also  Bien. 
Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  286. 

60  See,  especially,  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1900-1902,  p.  179; 
1908-10,  p.  160;  1910-12,  pp.  160-161,  180,  193-94;  I9I2~I4>  P*  3*5;  1914-16, 
p.  320;  1916-18,  p.  403;  Catalogue,  University  of  Florida,  1918-19,  PP-  13- 
14,  34,  77;  and  Catalogue,  Florida  State  College  for  Women,  1918-19,  pp. 

21-22. 

61  The  proportion  is  probably  larger  now. 

62  See  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910,  Vol.  II,  p.  315. 


210  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

the  United  States.68  It  would  indeed  be  difficult  to  evaluate  the 
educational  lessons  that  have  been  learned  by  the  Florida  students 
in  these  institutions  and  applied  at  home.  Most  of  the  leading 
educators  of  the  State  have  been  from  among  these  students, 
or  from  among  those  who  were  called  directly  from  educational 
institutions  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Thus  it  is  manifest 
that  the  growth  of  education  in  Florida  has  been  due,  to  some 
extent,  at  least,  to  the  influence  of  education  in  other  states. 

Better  Administrative  Control  and  Supervision. — Again,  with- 
out any  extended  discussion  of  this  point  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  educational  advancement  has  been  partly  due  to  better  ad- 
ministrative control  and  supervision.  Several  steps  in  this  direc- 
tion have  already  been  pointed  out;  for  example,  the  provision 
for  compulsory  school  attendance,64  the  free  transportation  of 
pupils  to  and  from  school,65  the  formulation  of  the  elementary- 
and  high-school  curricula  under  the  direction  of  the  state  super- 
intendent,66 the  provision  for  state  adoption  of  textbooks  for  use 
in  the  elementary  and  high  schools,67  and  the  inspection  of  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools  by  state  inspectors.68  But  there  have 
been  other  steps,  three  of  which  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  In 
1893  a  law  was  enacted  making  the  members  o¥  the  county  boards 

63  During  the  year  1905-06  there  were  103  Florida  students  attending 
institutions  of  higher  learning  in  other  states,  these  being  distributed  as 
follows:  12  at  Cornell,  Harvard,  Princeton,  and  Yale;  8  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  University  of  Michigan,  and  Northwestern  University;  10  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  Virginia  Military  Institute,  and  Washington 
and  Lee  University;  9  at  the  University  of  Arkansas,  University  of  Ken- 
tucky, University  of  Missouri,  and  University  of  North  Carolina;   9  at 
the  George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  University  of  Tennessee,  and 
Vanderbilt  University;  8  at  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  and  the 
University  of  Alabama;  I  at  Tulane  University  of  Louisiana;  and  46  at 
Georgia  institutions — 18  at  Emory  College   (now  Emory  University),  14 
at  the  Georgia  School  of  Technology,  2  at  Mercer  University,  and  12  at 
the  University  of  Georgia  (see  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1904-06, 
pp.  215-16). 

64  Vide  supra,  pp.  112  and  114. 

65  Ibid.,  pp.  113-14. 

66  Ibid.,  pp.  115-21  and  123-31. 

67  Ibid.,  pp.  175-78. 

68  Ibid.,  pp.  194-95. 


FACTORS  FAVORING  ADVANCE  OF  EDUCATION       211 

of  public  instruction  elective  by  popular  vote.69  It  required 
that  each  county  should  be  divided  into  three  school-board  dis- 
tricts with,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  the  same  number  of  voters 
in  each  district;  and  that  the  members  of  the  county  board  of 
public  instruction  should  be  elected  biennially,  one  from  each 
school-board  district,  by  the  qualified  electors  of  such  districts.70 
Contrary  to  the  predictions  of  many,71  the  law  has  proven  quite 
satisfactory.72  Greater  popular  interest  in  education  has  been 
awakened,  and  more  efficient  school-board  members  secured.  In 
1899  an  act  was  passed  requiring  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  of  each  county  to  take  the  census  of  the  school  popu- 
lation of  his  county  before  the  fifteenth  day  of  May  in  the  year 
1900,  and  every  tenth  year  thereafter,  and  report  such  census 
to  the  county  school  board  and  the  state  superintendent.73  Since 
1889  this  had  been  the  duty  of  the  local  school  supervisors,  the 
law  requiring  the  census  to  be  taken  in  the  year  1892,  and  every 
fourth  year  thereafter.74  While  the  census  should  be  taken 
oftener  than  every  ten  years,  this  change  in  the  method  of  taking 
it  was  undoubtedly  a  move  in  the  right  direction.75  In  the  third 
place,  during  the  last  few  years  some  of  the  counties,  without 
any  legislative  requirement,  have  secured  an  assistant  superin- 
tendent to  give  additional  supervision  to  the  schools,  particularly 
the  rural.76  As  is  patent,  therefore,  there  has  been  an  improve- 
ment in  regard  to  the  general  oversight  and  control  of  education 
in  the  State ;  and,  as  in  business  affairs,  this  is  an  important 
condition,  as  well  as  an  index,  of  progress. 

Better  Educational  Leadership.  —  Finally,  better  educational 
leadership  has  been  a  very  important  factor  in  the  recent  ad- 
vance of  public  education;  for,  as  experience  has  shown,  school 

69  Vide  Laws  of  Florida,  1893,  Chap.  4193. 

70  Since  1889  they  had  been  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education 
(see  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Chap.  3872,  Sec.  3). 

71  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1892-94,  pp.  132-34. 

72  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  555,  616,  628,  632, 
637,  640,  658,  667,  674,  681,  706,  718,  726,  and  731. 

73  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1899,  Chap.  4679. 

74  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1889,  Chap.  3872,  Sec.  37. 

75  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1894-96,  pp.  21-22 ;  1896-98,  pp. 
33-34;  and  1900-1902,  pp.  444-45- 

76  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  691. 


212  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

systems,  like  all  other  human  institutions,  can  achieve  things  only 
through  capable  leaders.  Since  January  3,  1893,  tne  State  has 
been  extremely  fortunate  in  having  at  the  head  of  its  school 
system  two  splendid  educational  leaders  —  Hon.  W.  N.  Sheats 
and  Hon.  W.  M.  Holloway.  Excepting  the  eight-year  period 
1905-13,  when  Mr.  Holloway  was  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  Dr.  Sheats,  the  educational  mentor  of  Florida,  has 
held  this  position.  Avoiding  all  invidious  comparisons,  one  is 
safe  in  saying  that  he  has  done  far  more  than  any  of  his  pred- 
ecessors for  the  movement  for  the  advancement  of  education. 
He  has  been  not  only  the  author  of  practically  all  the  constitu- 
tional and  legislative  provisions  upon  which  progress  in  educa- 
tion is  based,  but  also  an  efficient  organizer,  director,  adviser, 
and  inspirer  of  the  public-school  workers  of  the  State.  In  fact, 
as  a  school  administrator  he  has  had  but  few  superiors  any- 
where; and  as  a  man  he  has  always  stood  above  reproach.  He 
is  stern  but  absolutely  fair,  progressive  but  sane,  keen  in  his 
thinking,  straight  in  all  his  dealings,  and  helpful  in  his  sugges- 
tions. If  such  a  leader  can  be  kept  at  the  head  of  the  public- 
school  system,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  there  will 
continue  to  be  a  persistent  and  unabated  advance  of  public  edu- 
cation throughout  the  State. 

SUMMARY 

As  shown  in  this  chapter,  there  are  at  least  ten  factors  that 
have  favored  the  notable  advance  of  public  education  in  Florida 
since  1892.  They  are  as  follows:  (i)  the  rapid  and  persistent 
growth  of  population  in  almost  every  part  of  the  State;  (2)  the 
great  increase  in  the  amount  of  taxable  property ;  (3)  the  marked 
growth  of  public  sentiment  throughout  the  State  in  favor  of 
universal  education;  (4)  the  new  and  improved  school  legis- 
lation that  has  been  enacted;  (5)  the  system  of  state  aid;  (6) 
the  aid  received  from  the  National  Government;  (7)  numerous 
private  benefactions;  (8)  the  educational  accomplishment  in 
other  states;  (9)  better  administrative  control  and  supervision; 
and  (10)  greater  educational  leaders,  the  most  conspicuous  fig- 
ure being  Dr.  W.  N.  Sheats,  who  has  been  state  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  for  twenty  years. 


CHAPTER  X 

CONSPECTUS  OF  THE  PRESENT  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

This  chapter  contains  an  outline  of  the  present  system  of 
public  education  in  Florida.  The  different  phases  of  this  system 
are  subsumed  under  the  following  six  headings:  (I)  general 
administrative  control  and  snpervision,  (II)  school  population 
and  attendance,  (III)  the  system  of  public  instruction,  (IV) 
school  environment  and  equipment,  (V)  the  teaching  staff,  and 
(VI)  school  support. 

I.  GENERAL  ADMINISTRATIVE  CONTROL  AND  SUPERVISION 

School  Officers. — The  officers  of  the  educational  system  of 
the  State  are  a  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  a  state 
board  of  education,  a  state  vocational-education  board,  a  state 
board  of  control,  a  state  board  of  examiners,  a  state  high-school 
inspector,  two  state  inspectors  of  elementary  rural  schools,  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  each  county,  a  board 
of  education  for  each  county,  local  school  supervisors,  district 
trustees,  and  school-attendance  officers. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. — The  chief  officer 
of  the  school  system  is  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, who  has  general  supervision  of  all  matters  pertaining  there- 
to.1 He  is  elected  quadrennially,  at  the  general  election  in 
November,  by  the  qualified  voters  of  the  State.2  His  salary  is 
$3,600  a  year.3  His  principal  duties  and  powers  are  as  follows :  4 
(i)  to  have  the  school  laws,  and  such  blanks,  instructions,  and 
so  forth,  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  printed  and  distributed 

1  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  IV,  Sec.  25. 

2  Ibid.,  Sec.  20;  and  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  172. 

3  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  145. 

4  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  IV,  Sec.  27 ;  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  142- 
44  and  335;  Laws  of  Florida,   1917,  Chap.  7372,  Sees.  6,   13-16,   17    (as 
amended  by  Laws  of  1919,  Chap.  7942),  21,  and  23;  Laws  of  1917,  Chap. 
7373,  Sees.  I,  3,  and  4;  and  Laws  of  1919,  Chap.  7592,  Sec.  6. 

213 


214  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

gratuitously  to  the  school  officers  and  teachers;  (2)  to  hold 
conventions  of  county  superintendents  of  public  instruction  and 
other  school  officers;  (3)  to  assemble  teachers  in  institutes  and 
employ  competent  instructors  therefor;  (4)  to  apportion  the 
interest  of  the  state  school- fund,  and  the  fund  raised  by  the 
one-mill  state  tax,  among  the  various  counties  in  proportion  to 
the  average  attendance  at  school  of  children  residing  therein 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years;  (5)  to  make 
such  apportionment  as  seems  just  when  the  returns  on  which 
the  apportionment  should  be  made  are  defective  or  have  not 
been  received;  (6)  to  decide  appeals  arising  under  the  law,  or 
refer  the  same  to  the  state  board  of  education;  (7)  to  prescribe 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  management  of  the  department  of 
public  instruction;  (8)  to  grant  temporary,  life,  and  graduate 
certificates ;  (9)  to  issue  all  certificates  recommended  by  the  state 
board  of  examiners,  keep  a  record  of  the  same,  and  publish  in 
his  biennial  reports  the  names  of  all  living  holders  of  valid  cer- 
tificates; (10)  to  suspend  or  revoke  certificates  whenever  the 
holders  prove  incompetent,  unsuccessful,  or  grossly  immoral; 
(n)  to  file  and  preserve  certified  copies  of  the  monthly  lists 
of  persons  who  have  paid  their  poll  taxes;  (12)  to  be  a  member 
and  secretary  of  the  state  board  of  education;  (13)  to  be  a 
member  and  executive  officer  of  the  state  board  for  vocational 
education;  (14)  to  have  a  seal  for  his  own  official  use;  (15)  to 
keep  his  office  in  the  capitol;  and  (16)  to  make  a  biennial  re- 
port to  the  governor  as  to  his  official  acts,  the  receipts  and  ex- 
penditures of  his  office,  and  the  requirements  of  the  same. 

State  Board  of  Education. — This  board  consists  of  the  follow- 
ing state  officers:5  the  governor,  who  is  its  president;  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  is  its  secretary;  the 
state  treasurer,  who  is  its  treasurer;  the  attorney  general,  and 
the  secretary  of  state.  Its  powers  and  duties  are : 6  ( I )  to  have 
charge  of  all  the  school  lands;  (2)  to  manage  and  provide  for 
the  safe-keeping  and  expenditure  of  all  the  school  funds  of  the 

5  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  XII,  Sec.  3;  also  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec. 
335. 

6  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art  XII,  Sec.  3 ;  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  336 
and  350;  and  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7372,  Sec.  20,  and  Chap.  7376, 
Sec.  3. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM  215 

State;  (3)  to  determine  appeals  referred  to  it  by  the  state  su- 
cause;  (5)  to  keep  in  view  the  establishment  of  schools  on  a 
perintendent ;  (4)  to  remove  any  subordinate  school  officer  for 
broad  and  liberal  basis,  the  object  of  which  being  the  giving  of 
instruction  in  the  higher  branches  not  taught  in  the  common 
schools;  (6)  to  co-operate  with  the  state  superintendent  in  the 
management  of  the  department  of  education;  (7)  to  fill  va- 
cancies in  the  county  boards  of  public  instruction  upon  the  nom- 
ination of  the  state  superintendent;  (8)  to  approve  rules  and 
regulations  suggested  by  the  state  board  of  examiners  for  con- 
ducting the  examinations  of  all  applicants  for  teachers'  certifi- 
cates; and  (9)  to  act  as  the  board  for  vocational  education  in 
the  State. 

State  Vocational-Education  Board. — By  act  approved  June  5, 
19 1/,7  the  legislature  of  Florida  made  provisions  for  accepting 
the  vocational-education  act  of  Congress  known  as  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act.8  The  state  board  of  education  was  designated  as 
the  board  for  vocational  education  in  the  State,  and  was  charged 
with  the  following  duties  and  powers:9  (i)  to  co-operate  with 
the  federal  board  for  vocational  education  in  administering  the 
provisions  of  the  foregoing  congressional  act;  (2)  to  admin- 
ister any  legislation  pursuant  thereto  enacted  by  the  State;  (3) 
to  administer  all  federal  and  state  funds  provided  for  the  pro- 
motion of  vocational  education  in  the  State;  (4)  to  formulate 
plans  for  the  promotion  of  vocational-education  subjects  as  a 
part  of  the  public-school  system,  and  provide  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers  in  such  subjects;  (5)  to  fix  the  compensation  of 
officials  and  assistants  necessary  for  the  administration  of  both 
the  federal  and  state  vocational-education  acts,  and  to  pay  such 
compensation  and  necessary  expenses  from  funds  appropriated 
by  the  State;  (6)  to  make  studies  and  investigations  in  regard 
to  vocational  education;  (7)  to  aid  local  communities  in  the 
establishment  of  vocational  schools,  departments,  or  classes; 
(8)  to  prescribe  qualifications  for  the  teachers,  directors,  and 
supervisors  of  vocational-education  subjects,  and  provide  fof 
their  certification;  (9)  to  co-operate  with  local  communities  in 

7  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7376. 

8  Florida  was  the  first  state  in  the  South  to  take  this  step. 

9  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7592,  Sees.  4  and  5. 


216  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

the  maintenance  of  vocational  schools,  departments,  or  classes, 
or  establish  such  schools,  departments,  or  classes  under  its  own 
direction  and  control;  and  (10)  to  establish  and  determine  the 
qualifications  to  be  possessed  by  persons  engaged  in  the  training 
of  teachers  of  vocational  subjects. 

By  act  approved  May  31,  I9I9,10  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  was  designated  as  the  executive  officer  of  the 
state  board  for  vocational  education,  and  was  authorized  to  des- 
ignate, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  board,  such 
assistants  as  were  necessary  to  carry  out  the  vocational-education 
provisions  of  the  State.  Since  then  a  state  director  for  voca- 
tional education  has  been  provided  for,  and  also  a  full-time  state 
supervisor  for  each  of  the  three  phases  of  vocational  education — 
agriculture,  home  economics,  and  trades  and  industries.11 

State  Board  of  Control. — This  board  is  composed  of  five  mem- 
bers,12 all  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  governor  for  a  term 
of  four  years.13  Its  chief  powers  and  duties  are  as  follows : 14 
(i)  to  have  jurisdiction  over  and  complete  management  and 
control  of  the  following  state  educational  institutions:  the  Uni- 
versity of  Florida,  the  Florida  State  College  for  Women,  the 
Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for  Negroes,  and 
the  Florida  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind;  (2)  to  make  all 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  same  not  inconsistent  with  the  gen- 
eral rules  and  regulations;  (3)  to  appoint  all  managers,  faculties, 
and  other  employees,  and  remove  the  same  as  it  sees  fit ;  (4)  to 
fix  their  compensation  and  provide  for  their  payment;  (5)  to 
have  full  possession  and  control  of  all  property  of  each  of  the 
said  institutions;  (6)  to  provide  for  the  courses  of  instruction; 
(7)  to  visit  and  inspect  the  said  institutions,  and  provide  for 

10  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7592,  Sec.  6. 

11  At    present    (1921)    these    officers    are    as    follows:  Hon.    Shelton 
Philips,  of  Williston,  state  director  for  vocational  education;  Hon.  E.  A. 
Haynie,  of  Gainesville,  state  supervisor  for  agricultural  education;  Hon. 
T.  H.  Quigley,  of  Gainesville,  state  supervisor  for  trade  and  industrial 
education;  and  Miss  Lucy  C.  Cushman,  of  Tallahassee,  state  supervisor 
for  home-economics  education. 

12  One  from  east  Florida,  one  from  west  Florida,  one  from  middle 
Florida,  one  from  south  Florida,  and  one  from  middle  south  Florida. 

13  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5384,  Sec.  13. 
"/few/.,  Sec.  19. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        217 

the  proper  keeping  of  accounts  and  other  records  thereof ;  (8) 
to  prepare  all  budgets  of  expenditures;  (9)  to  audit  and  approve 
all  accounts  before  they  are  paid;  (10)  to  provide  necessary 
grounds,  buildings,  and  other  property;  (n)  to  care  for  and 
maintain  the  same;  and  (12)  to  perform  other  necessary  acts, 
but  at  all  times  subject  to  the  state  board  of  education. 

State  Board  of  Examiners. — As  we  have  already  seen,15  this 
board  consists  of  three  well-qualified  teachers  nominated  by  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  appointed  by  the 
state  board  of  education.  The  annual  salary  of  each  member 
is  $2,000  and  traveling  expenses  not  to  exceed  $8oo.16  The 
duties  of  the  board  are:17  (i)  to  prepare  all  questions  to  be 
used  in  the  examination  of  applicants  to  teach;  (2)  to  hold  all 
examinations,  both  oral  and  written,  under  such  rules  and  regu- 
lations suggested  by  it  and  approved  by  the  state  board  of  edu- 
cation; (3)  to  grade  all  examiners  except  as  the  state  board 
of  education  may  otherwise  provide;  (4)  to  make  a  weekly 
report  to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  as  to  the 
examinees'  grades  on  the  various  subjects  and  the  kind  of  cer- 
tificate to  which  each  is  entitled ;  ( 5 )  to  send  every  county 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  in  July  of  each  year,  a 
printed  schedule  giving  the  dates  and  places  of  all  examinations 
for  the  ensuing  year;  and  (6)  to  remit  monthly  to  the  state 
treasurer  all  examination  fees  collected,  and  make  to  the  state 
board  of  education  a  statement  of  the  same,  attaching  thereto 
a  copy  of  the  treasurer's  receipt. 

State  High-School  Inspector. — As  already  stated,18  the  profes- 
sor of  secondary  education  at  the  University  of  Florida  acts 
as  the  state  high-school  inspector.  He  gives  about  half  of  his 
time  to  this  line  of  work,  which  consists  in  visiting,  supervising, 
standardizing,  and  classifying  the  high  schools  of  the  State.  His 
salary  and  traveling  expenses  are  borne  by  the  General  Educa- 
tion Board19  and  the  University.20 

15  See  page  192. 

16  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7372,  Sec.  24. 

17  Ibid.,  Sees.  19^-20,  22,  and  24. 

18  See  pages  194-95. 

19  The  board  donates  $1,750  annually  for  this  purpose. 

20  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  295. 


218  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Rural-School  Inspectors. — The  State  is  provided  with  two 
rural-school  inspectors.21  These  officers  are  nominated  by  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  appointed  by  the 
governor.  They  hold  their  positions  subject  to  the  state  board 
of  education.  Each  of  them  receives  a  salary  of  $2,000  a  year 
and  $1,250  a  year  for  traveling  expenses.  Their  duties  are:  (i) 
to  visit  and  supervise  the  elementary  rural  schools,  and  promote 
in  every  way  possible  their  development;  (2)  to  perform  such 
acts,  when  the  schools  are  not  in  operation,  as  the  state  board 
of  education  may  require  of  them;  and  (3)  to  make  reports 
to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  under  whose 
direction  they  must  work. 

County  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction. — The  principal 
educational  officer  of  the  various  counties  is  the  county  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  who  is  elected  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  at  the  general  election,  by  the  qualified  electors  in  each 
county.22  The  salary  of  this  officer  varies  among  the  different 
counties,  being  based  upon  the  total  annual  school  receipts,23 
exclusive  of  borrowed  money.  In  counties  where  the  receipts 
are  less  than  $14,000  the  minimum  salary  is  $50  a  month ;  from 
$14,000  to  $20,000,  $75  a  month;  from  $20,000  to  $40,000, 
$100  a  month;  from  $40,000  to  $70,000,  $125  a  month;  from 
$70,000  to  $100,000,  $150  a  month;  from  $100,000  to  $120,000, 
$175  a  month ;  and  from  $120,000  to  $200,000,  $200  a  month.24 
His  chief  functions  are  as  follows : 25  ( i )  to  act  as  secretary 
of  the  county  board  of  public  instruction;  (2)  to  ascertain 
the  proper  places  for  the  location  of  schools;  (3)  to  visit  and 
examine  each  school  at  least  once  each  term,  and  give  such  ad- 
vice as  he  may  deem  proper;  (4)  to  awaken  an  increased  in- 
terest in  public  education;  (5)  to  nominate  suitable  persons  for 
local  school  supervisors;  (6)  to  keep  these  supervisors  supplied 

21  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6539;  also  supra,  p.  195. 

22  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  VIII,  Sec.  6;  and  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec. 
172. 

23  Except  in  counties  having  a  population  between  37,000  and  40,000 
according  to  the  state  census  of  1915,  where  it  is  $2,700  a  year,  payable 
in  monthly  installments  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8545,  Sec  2). 

2*  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1907,  Chap.  5658. 

25  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  345  and  351;  Laws  of  Florida,  1915.  Chap. 
6813,  Sees,  i  and  3 ;  and  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  20. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        219 

with  the  school  laws,  decisions,  blanks,  and  regulations  of  the 
state  department  of  education,  confer  with  them  frequently,  and 
see  that  they  attend  to  their  duties;  (7)  to  keep  a  record  of  the 
location  of  each  school  and  of  his  expenses  incurred  in  visiting 
the  several  schools;  (8)  to  furnish  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  the  names  and  addresses  of  all  county  school 
officers;  (9)  to  decide  questions  and  disputes  when  submitted 
to  him,  and  refer  his  decisions  to  the  county  board  of  public 
instruction;  (10)  to  guard  the  interests  of  the  county  in  its 
contracts,  and  see  that  all  funds  apportioned  to  or  raised  by  the 
county  are  properly  applied ;  ( 1 1 )  to  revoke  or  suspend  teachers' 
certificates  for  cause;  (12)  to  forward  certified  copies  of  the 
tax  collector's  monthly  lists  of  poll  taxes  to  the  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction;  (13)  to  take  the  school  census 
of  his  county,  and  report  the  same  to  the  county  board  of  public 
instruction  and  the  state  superintendent;  (14)  to  furnish  the 
state  comptroller,  when  called  for,  a  financial  report  of  the 
schools  in  such  form  as  to  set  forth  the  condition  of  the  county 
and  district  school-funds,  and  preserve  in  his  office  an  exact 
copy  of  the  same;  and  (15)  to  make  an  annual  report  to  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction.28 

County  Boards  of  Public  Instruction. — The  different  counties 
are  provided  with  a  county  board  of  public  instruction  composed 
of  three  members, — one  from  each  school-board  district — who  are 
elected  biennially,  at  the  general  election,  by  the  qualified  voters 
of  their  respective  counties.27  The  compensation  of  the  members 
is  $4  for  each  day's  service  and  ten  cents  for  each  mile  traveled,28 
except  in  the  counties  having  a  population  between  37,000  and 
50,000  according  to  the  state  census  of  1915,  or  between  50,000 
and  150,000  according  to  the  recent  federal  census,  where  it  is 
$600  a  year,  payable  in  monthly  installments.29  The  principal 

26  Such  report  must  be  filed  with  the  state  superintendent  on  or  before 
August  15  of  each  and  every  year,  the  penalty  for  not  doing  so  being  the 
withholding  of  further  payment  of  his  salary  by  the  county  board  of  pub- 
lic instruction  until  it  is  notified  by  the  state  superintendent  that  such  re- 
port has  been  received  and  accepted  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap. 
8547). 

27See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  172  and  329. 

28  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1907,  Chap.  5656,  Sec.  i. 

29  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7882,  Sec.  i;  and  Laws  of  1921, 
Chap.  8495,  Sec.  i. 


220  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

powers  and  duties  of  each  board  are : 30  ( i )  to  acquire  and 
hold  all  school  property  of  the  county,  except  the  property  of 
the  special-tax  districts;  (2)  to  establish  and  maintain  schools 
for  the  accommodation  of  all  persons  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  twenty-one  years  during  not  less  than  four  months  each  year ; 
(3)  to  appoint  local  school  supervisors;  (4)  to  select  and  pro- 
vide school  sites;  (5)  to  provide  school  buildings,  equipment, 
and  so  forth,  and  establish  schools  of  higher  grades  when  re- 
quired by  the  patrons;  (6)  to  employ  and  pay  the  teachers  of 
all  the  schools;  (7)  to  audit  and  pay  all  its  accounts;  (8)  to 
keep  an  accurate  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and  official  acts, 
and  also  of  all  moneys  handled,  and  report  the  same  to  the  state 
superintendent  when  required;  (9)  to  prepare  and  file  with  the 
clerk  of  the  circuit  court  an  itemized  monthly  financial  statement, 
and  cause  the  same  to  be  published  in  one  of  the  county  news- 
papers; (10)  to  perform  all  acts  necessary  for  promoting  the 
educational  interests  of  the  county ;  ( 1 1 )  to  hold  regular  meet- 
ings by  arrangement  with  the  state  superintendent,  and  convene 
a  special  session  when  requested  by  the  county  superintendent; 

(12)  to  prepare  annually  an  itemized  statement  of  the  amount 
of  money  needed  for  school  purposes  for  the  next  ensuing  year, 
stating  the  amount  in  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property, 
and  furnish  a  copy  of  such  statement  to  the  county  assessors; 

(13)  to  examine  at  least  twice  a  year  the  records  of  the  tax 
collector  which  relate  to  poll  taxes,  and  require  prompt  settle- 
ment for  all  the  said  taxes ;    ( 14)  to  divide  the  county  into  three 
school-board  districts,  so  that  each  will  have  as  nearly  as  prac- 
ticable the  same  number  of  legal  voters,  and  so  that  no  election 
district  will  be  divided;    (15)  to  change  the  boundaries  of  such 
districts;    (16)  to  call  an  election,  upon  the  petition  of   one- 
fourth  of  the  legal  voters  of  any  subdivision  of  the  county,  for 
creating  or  abolishing  a  special-tax  school  district;   (17)   to  re- 
move any  district  trustee  for  failure  to  discharge  his  duties; 
(18)  to  fill   all  vacancies   occurring  in  the  district  boards   of 

30  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  347,  349,  400,  and  407 ;  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed., 
Regs.  5,  16,  and  17;  Laws  of  Florida,  1911,  Chap.  6163,  Sec.  i;  Laws  of 
1915,  Chaps.  6828  and  6833;  Laws  of  1917,  Chap.  7376,  Sec.  7;  Laws  of 
1919,  Chap.  7808,  Sec.  5,  and  Chap.  7916,  Sec.  i ;  and  Laws  of  1921,  Chap. 
8546. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        221 

trustees;  (19)  to  subdivide  the  county  into  convenient  and  per- 
manent school  districts,  and  restrict  the  attendance  of  pupils  to 
the  school  within  their  own  districts;  (20)  to  furnish  free  text- 
books to  all  children  not  over  fifteen  years  of  age  who  are  finan- 
cially unable  to  procure  them;  (21)  to  borrow  money  at  a  rate 
of  interest  not  to  exceed  eight  per  cent  per  annum  for  the  pur- 
pose of  paying  the  legitimate  expenses  incurred  in  operating 
the  schools;  (22)  to  employ  county  agents  to  conduct  practical 
farm-  and  home-demonstration  work;  (23)  to  establish  and 
maintain  vocational  schools,  departments,  or  classes,  giving  in- 
struction of  less  than  college"  grade ;  (24)  to  appoint  all  school- 
attendance  officers,  fix  their  compensation,  and  remove  those  who 
fail  to  perform  their  duties;  and  (25)  to  acquire  lands  for  use 
in  farm-demonstration  work. 

Local  School  Supervisors. — The  various  schools  have  a  local 
school  supervisor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  county  board  of 
public  instruction  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  patrons  ot 
the  school  and  the  nomination  of  the  county  superintendent.31 
The  duties  of  this  officer  are:32  (i)  to  supervise  the  work  of 
the  school,  and  report  monthly  to  the  county  board  of  public 
instruction;  (2)  to  oversee  the  erection,  rental,  repair,  and  im- 
provement of  the  school  buildings,  grounds,  equipment,  and  sup- 
plies; (3)  to  procure  a  copy  of  the  school  laws,  decisions,  and 
regulations  for  the  use  of  the  teachers  and  for  his  own  instruc- 
tion; (4)  to  co-operate  with  the  teachers  in  elevating  the  con- 
dition of  the  school;  and  (5)  to  review  all  suspensions  of  pupils, 
and  report  the  same  at  once  to  the  county  superintendent. 

Administrative  Unit. — The  unit  for  educational  administration 
is  the  county.33  All  the  schools  in  each  county,  even  those  of 
the  cities,  are  under  the  direction  and  control  of  one  county 
board  of  public  instruction.  However,  for  purposes  of  local 
school  supervision,  the  various  counties  are  subdivided,  the  sub- 
divisions being  designated  as  school  districts.  As  stated  above, 
each  school  district  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  local  school 
supervisor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  board  of  public  instruction 
of  the  county.  School  districts  which  levy  a  school-district  tax 

31  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  3,  and  Sec.  351,  Para.  5. 

32  Ibid.,  Sec.  352. 

33  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  399. 


222  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

are  known  as  special-tax  school  districts.84  As  we  shall  see  be- 
low, these  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  district  board  of  trus- 
tees, who,  though  not  appointed  by  the  county  board  of  public 
instruction,  must,  like  the  local  school  supervisors,  be  governed 
in  the  discharge  of  its  duties  by  the  rules  and  regulations  of 
this  board.85 

Special-Tax  School  Districts. — Upon  the  petition  of  one-fourth 
of  the  resident  tax-paying  electors  of  any  city,  incorporated  town, 
community,  or  other  subdivision  of  a  county,  the  county  board 
of  public  instruction  must  order  an  election  to  be  held  therein, 
at  such  time  and  place  as  it  may  direct,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
termining whether  such  subdivision  shall  become  a  special-tax 
school  district.86  However,  the  board  may  change  the  bounda- 
ries designated  in  the  petition,  but  in  no  case  may  it  include 
territory  not  already  included,  and  must  give  notice  of  any  such 
change  in  its  notice  of  the  election.37  At  such  election  there  are 
three  questions  to  be  voted  on:  (i)  whether  a  district  school- 
tax  shall  be  levied;  (2)  how  many  mills  shall  be  levied  for  the 
two  succeeding  years;  and  (3)  who  shall  be  the  school  trustees 
of  the  district.  These  are  determined  by  majority  of  the  ballots 
cast  by  the  legal  voters,  except  that  the  three  persons  receiving 
the  highest  number  are  declared  the  district  trustees.38  Any 
subdivision  formed  into  a  special-tax  school  district  continues 
as  such  until  abolished  or  changed  in  the  same  way  that  it  was 
formed,39  but  no  district  having  any  outstanding  indebtedness 
can  be  abolished  until  the  payment  of  such  indebtedness  has  been 
provided  for.38  In  1919-20  there  were  883  special-tax  school 
districts  in  the  state.40 

Consolidated  Special-Tax  School  Districts. — There  is  also  a 
very  recent  law  —  quite  similar  to  the  one  above  —  which  makes 
provision  for  the  consolidation  of  two  or  more  contiguous  special- 

34  Schools  of  the  said  districts  are  known  as  special-tax  schools. 

35  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  408;  also  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Regs.  25 
and  28. 

36  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  400. 

37  Ibid.,  Sec.  401 ;  and  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8555. 

38  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5389. 

39  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  401 ;  and  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8555. 

40  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  122. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        223 

tax  school  districts.41  It  provides  that  upon  the  petition  of  one- 
fourth  of  the  resident  tax-paying  voters  of  each  of  the  districts 
proposed  to  be  consolidated  the  county  board  must  order  an 
election  to  determine  (i)  whether  such  districts  shall  be  con- 
solidated into  a  single  special-tax  school  ditsrict,  (2)  the  millage 
to  be  levied,  and  (3)  who  shall  be  the  school  trustees;  the 
matter  of  consolidation  being  determined  by  a  majority  vote, 
the  number  of  mills  to  be  levied  by  a  plurality  vote,  and  the 
trustees  of  the  consolidated  special-tax  school  district  being  the 
three  persons  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes. 

District  Trustees. — As  we  have  just  seen,  each  special-tax 
school  district  is  provided  with  a  board  of  trustees  consisting 
of  three  members.  These  are  elected  once  every  two  years  by 
the  qualified  electors  of  the  district,  the  election  being  held  as 
nearly  as  practicable  on  the  anniversary  of  the  original  election 
creating  the  district,  and  under  the  direction  of  the  county  board 
of  public  instruction.42  The  position  of  local  school  supervisor  is 
superseded  by  this  board  of  trustees  when  a  school  district  be- 
comes a  special-tax  district.  Hence,  it  is  required  to  perform  the 
duties  prescribed  by  law  for  the  supervisors.43  In  addition,  it  is 
directed  and  empowered  as  follows:44  (i)  to  nominate  teachers 
for  all  the  schools;  (2)  to  direct  the  application  of  the  school 
funds  of  the  district;  (3)  to  prepare  annually  an  itemized  finan- 
cial statement  of  the  amount  of  money  required  for  school  pur- 
poses for  the  next  ensuing  year,  certifying  therein  the  rate  of 
millage  voted  by  the  district  to  be  assessed  and  collected  for  that 
year,  and  file  a  copy  of  the  statement  with  the  board  of  county 
commissioners,  the  state  comptroller,45  and  the  county  board  of 
public  instruction;  and  (4)  to  permit  non-resident  children  to 
attend  the  schools  of  the  district. 

School-Attendance  Officers. — Each  county  has  at  least  one 
school-attendance  officer,  who  is  appointed  by  the  county  board 

41  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7913. 

42  See  Constitution  of  Florida,   Art.   XII,   Sec.    10;   and   Gen.   Stats., 
Sec.  406. 

43  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  407 ;  also  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  28. 

44  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  407-10  and  415. 

45  If  there  are  any  railroads  or  telegraph  lines  in  the  district. 


224  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  public  instruction,46  and  charged  with  the  following  powers 
and  duties  :  4T  (  I  )  to  take  an  annual  census  of  all  children  be- 
tween seven  and  eighteen  years  old,  and  file  a  copy  thereof  with 
the  county  and  the  state  superintendent;  (2)  to  serve  notice 
of  the  illegal  non-attendance  at  school  of  any  child  upon  the 
parents  or  persons  in  parental  relation  thereto,  and  see  that 
the  child  attends  school  as  provided  by  law;  (3)  to  furnish  the 
principals  and  teachers  in  charge  of  the  various  schools  with 
the  names  of  all  children  in  their  respective  districts  who  are 
required  to  attend  school;  (4)  to  enter  any  office,  factory,  or 
business  houses  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  or  not 
any  children  are  employed  therein  who  should  be  attending 
school;  (5)  to  make  and  file  complaint  in  court  against  any 
person  or  persons  violating  the  compulsory  school-attendance 
law;  (6)  to  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  required  of 
him  by  the  county  superintendent  of  public  instruction;  and 
(7)  to  keep  a  record  of  all  services  rendered,  and  make  an  an- 
nual report  of  the  same  to  the  county  board  of  public  instruction. 

II.  SCHOOL  POPULATION  AND  ATTENDANCE 

Age  Limits.  —  The  public  free  schools  of  the  State  are  open 
for  the  instruction  of  all  children  between  six  and  twenty-one 
years  of  age,48  and  kindergartens  may  be  established  and  main- 
tained by  county  boards  of  public  instruction  or  district  boards 
of  trustees  for  the  instruction  of  children  below  six  years  of 


School  Census.  —  A  correct  census  of  all  the  children  in  each 
county  between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years,  with  a 
statement  of  those  who  are  idiotic,  insane,  blind,  or  deaf,  must 
be  taken  by  the  county  superintendent  of  public  instruction  be- 
fore the  fifteenth  day  of  May  in  every  year  exactly  divisible  by 
ten,  and  reported  to  the  school  board  of  the  county  and  the 
state  superintendent  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  June  of  that 
year.  Should  he  employ  anyone  to  assist  him  in  taking  such 
census,  the  person  or  persons  must  make  a  sworn  statement  as 

«6  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7808,  Sec.  5. 

47  Ibid.,  Sees.  6-n. 

48  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  313  and  314. 

49  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5387. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        225 

to  the  time  and  place  of  the  same,  and  such  statement  must  be 
filed  with  the  county  school-board  as  part  of  his  report.  His 
compensation  for  the  performance  of  the  duties  herein  required 
of  him  is  three  cents  for  each  child  included  in  the  enumeration. 
The  penalty  for  his  failure  to  perform  them  is  removal  from 
office.50 

In  addition,  an  accurate  census  of  all  the  children  in  each 
county  between  seven  and  eighteen  years  of  age  must  be  taken  in 
triplicate  by  the  school-attendance  officer  or  officers  thereof  dur- 
ing the  month  of  June  of  every  year;  the  said  census  including 
the  following  data  for  every  child  in  the  county:  (i)  name, 
(2)  sex,  (3)  age  and  date  of  birth,  (4)  distance  from  the 
nearest  school,  (5)  school  grade  completed,  and  (6)  name  of 
parent  (father  or  mother),  guardian,  or  other  person  standing 
in  parental  relation,  with  the  post-office  address  thereof ;  and, 
on  or  before  the  first  day  of  July  of  the  year  in  which  such 
census  is  taken,  one  copy  thereof  must  be  filed  with  the  county 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  one  with  the  state  superin- 
tendent, and  one  retained  by  the  attendance  officer  or  officers.51 

Separation  of  the  Races. — Separate  schools  are  maintained  by 
the  different  counties  for  children  of  the  negro  race.52  In  fact, 
it  is  unlawful  to  conduct  any  public,  private,  or  parochial  school 
wherein  white  persons  and  negroes  are  instructed  or  boarded 
in  the  same  building  or  taught  in  the  same  class.  Any  person 
violating  this  provision  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one 
hundred  fifty  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  or  imprison- 
ment in  the  county  jail  of  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
six  months.53  Also,  it  is  unlawful  for  white  teachers  to  teach 
in  negro  schools  or  for  negro  teachers  to  teach  in  white  schools. 
Anyone  violating  this  provision  is  subject  to  a  fine  not  exceeding 
five  hundred  dollars  or  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  ex- 
ceeding six  months.54 

50  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  351,  Para.  12. 

51  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7808,  Sec.  6. 

52  The  constitution   requires  this.    However,  it  also  requires  that  the 
negro  children  shall  be  given  equal  educational  advantages  with  the  chil- 
dren of  the  white  race  (Art.  XII,  Sec.  12). 

53  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6490. 

54  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6490. 


226  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Suspension  from  School. — Any  teacher  may  suspend  pupils  for 
ten  days  on  account  of  gross  immorality,  misconduct,  or  per- 
sistent violation  of  the  regulations,  giving  immediate  notice  to 
the  parents  or  persons  standing  in  loco  parentis,  and  to  the  local 
school  supervisor,  of  the  suspension  and  the  cause  thereof.55 

Place  of  Attendance. — The  attendance  of  pupils  in  each  county 
is  restricted  to  the  school  within  their  own  school  district,  unless 
allowed  elsewhere  in  the  county  by  special  permission  or  regu- 
lation of  the  county  board  of  public  education.56  But  non-res- 
ident pupils  of  any  of  the  special^tax  school  districts  may  attend 
school  therein  only  by  securing  the  consent  of  the  district  trustees, 
and  also  by  paying  a  pro  rata  share  of  the  cost.57  However, 
all  pupils  of  the  county  who  are  qualified  may  attend  the  county 
high  school.56  The  children  who  desire  to  attend  school  in  an 
adjacent  county  in  the  State  may  do  so  by  the  concurrence  of 
the  superintendents  of  the  two  counties,  provided  the  pro  rata 
share  of  cost  is  paid  by  the  school  board  of  the  county  in  which 
the  children  reside ; 58  and  children  living  in  any  county  bordering 
on  Alabama  or  Georgia  who  desire  to  attend  school  in  an  ad- 
joining county  therein  may  do  so,  if  suitable  arrangements  are 
made  by  the  board  of  public  instruction  of  their  county  with 
the  school  authorities  of  the  other  state.59 

Time  and  Term. — The  dates  for  opening  and  closing  the  school 
terms  in  the  various  counties  are  fixed  by  the  county  board  of 
education,60  but  at  least  four  months  of  instruction  in  each  year 
must  be  provided.61  However,  none  of  the  schools  can  open 
before  the  first  day  of  July  of  the  school  year  to  which  that 
term  of  school  belongs,62  and  all  of  them  must  close  by  the  last 
day  of  June.63  Any  school  failing  to  complete  its  required  term 
of  four  months  by  that  date  forfeits  its  proportion  of  the  finan- 

55  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  379,  Para.  5- 

56  See  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  17. 

57  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  415. 
s*Ibid.,  Sec.  325. 

59  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8546. 

60  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  316. 

61  Ibid.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  2. 

62  Ibid.,  Sec.  315. 

63  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  316. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        227 

cial  apportionment  unless  the  time  lost  is  made  up  the  ensuing 
year.6* 

School  Holidays. — The  following  are  designated  as  school 
holidays :  Independence  Day,  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  the  period 
from  December  24  to  January  I,  inclusive.  On  these  days  all 
the  schools  that  are  in  session  at  the  time  are  required  to  close, 
and  none  of  the  days  can  be  counted  as  taught  in  the  teacher's 
monthly  report.65 

Meaning  of  School  Year,  Term,  Month,  and  Day. — The  school 
year  for  all  public  schools  extends  from  July  i  to  June  30  of 
the  ensuing  year,  and  all  "reports  to  the  state  department  of 
education  must  embrace  only  such  matters  as  take  place  within 
these  limits.66  A  school  day  comprises  not  less  than  five  nor 
more  than  six  hours,  exclusive  of  recesses,  the  exact  length 
in  each  county  being  determined  by  the  county  board.67  A  school 
month  consists  of  twenty  days,  excluding  holidays65  and  the  first 
and  last  days  of  the  week.67  A  school  term  contains  four  school 
months;67  and  a  school  year,68  two  school  terms.67 

Compulsory  Attendance.™ — All  children  in  the  State  between 
seven  and  sixteen  years  of  age  are  required  to  attend  a  public 
school  each  year  for  the  full  term  for  which  the  school  is  in 
session.  However,  the  following  classes  of  children  are  ex- 
empted from  this  requirement:  (i)  children  who  are  properly 
instructed  in  a  private  or  parochial  school,  or  at  home  by  a 
competent  person,  satisfactory  proof  of  such  instruction  being 
furnished  the  county  superintendent;  (2)  children  who  are  men- 
tally or  physically  incapacitated  to  perform  school  duties,  the 
proof  of  such  incapacity  being  submitted  to  the  school-attendance 
officer;  (3)  children  who  have  completed  the  grammar-school 
grades;  (4)  children  whose  services  are  needed  for  the  support 
of  a  widowed  mother  or  other  dependent  person,  such  depen- 
dency being  proven  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  attendance  officer; 
(5)  children  under  ten  years  of  age  who  reside  more  than  two 
miles,  and  children  over  ten  who  reside  more  than  three  miles, 

e4  Ibid.,  Sec.  327. 

65  Ibid.,  Sec.  318. 

66  Ibid.,  Sec.  314. 
«ilbid.,  Sec.  317. 

68  As  is  seen,  the  term  "  school  year  "  is  used  in  two  different  senses. 

69  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7808. 


228  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

from  a  school,  unless  free  transportation  is  furnished ;  (6)  chil- 
dren whose  parents  or  guardians  are  unable  to  provide  the  nec- 
essary books  and  clothing,  unless  such  books  and  clothing  are 
provided  by  some  other  means;  and  (7)  children  who  are  ex- 
empted by  the  attendance  officer  for  unusual  causes.  Also,  oc- 
casional absences  from  such  attendance,  not  exceeding  four  school 
days  per  month,  may  be  allowed. 

Every  person  in  charge  of  a  child  within  the  compulsory 
school-attendance  ages,  and  not  properly  excused  from  attend- 
ance at  school  for  some  one  or  more  of  the  above-mentioned 
exemptions,  must  require  such  child  to  attend  school  regularly  dur- 
ing the  full  time  the  public  school  is  in  session ;  and,  on  conviction 
for  failing  to  do  so,  may  be  fined  not  more  than  five  dollars 
for  each  offense ; 70  and  for  failure  to  pay  such  fine  may  be 
imprisoned  not  exceeding  five  days.  However,  any  person  in 
charge  of  a  child  within  the  compulsory  school-attendance  ages 
who  presents  satisfactory  proof  that  he  or  she  is  unable  to  compel 
such  child  to  attend  school  may  be  exempted  from  the  penalties 
as  regards  non-attendance  of  such  child;  and  such  child,  if  a 
boy,  may  be  committed  to  the  Florida  Industrial  School  for  Boys, 
and  if  a  girl,  to  the  Florida  Industrial  School  for  Girls. 

The  principal  or  teacher  having  charge  of  any  public  school 
is  required  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  attendance  and 
non-attendance  of  all  children  enrolled  therein,  and  report  the 
non-attendance  of  any  child  to  the  school-attendance  officer  on 
Friday  of  each  week  during  the  school  term,  together  with  the 
reason  therefor,  if  known;  and  for  failure  to  do  so  his  or  her 
certificate  may  be  revoked  by  the  state  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  upon  satisfactory  proof  of  such  failure.  Also  private 
teachers  and  principals  or  teachers  of  private  or  parochial  schools 
are  required  to  keep,  a  record  of  the  attendance  of  children  so 
as  to  enable  the  county  superintendent  to  verify  a  child's  at- 
tendance. 

As  already  pointed  out,71  the  execution  of  the  compulsory 
school-attendance  law  in  each  county  is  entrusted  to  the  school- 

70  Each  day  a  child  remains  away  from  school  after  being  notified  by 
the  attendance  officer  constitutes  a  separate  offense.    All  fines  collected 
are  paid  into  the  county  school-fund  of  the  county  in  which  collected. 

71  See  pages  223-24. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        229 

attendance  officer,  who,  failing  to  perform  his  duties,  may  be 
removed  from  office  by  the  county  board  of  public  instruction. 

All  notices,  forms,  and  blanks  to  be  used  in  carrying  out  the 
provisions  of  this  law  are  prescribed  by  the  state  superintendent 
and  furnished  by  the  county  boards  of  the  different  counties. 

Consolidation  of  Schools  and  Transportation  of  Pupils. — The 
law  expressly  forbids  the  establishment  of  schools,  for  the  same 
race,  nearer  than  three  miles  of  each  other,  except  for  some  local 
necessity.72  Hence,  the  state  board  of  education  has  made  it  the 
duty  of  the  county  boards  af  the  counties  in  which  such  schools 
are  maintained  to  combine  two  or  more  schools  into  one,  when 
practicable,  or  otherwise  re-arrange  them  so  as  to  conform  to  the 
three-mile  limit.73  However,  thus  far  there  have  been  no  statu- 
tory provisions  looking  either  to  the  consolidation  of  schools  or 
the  transportation  of  pupils.  Nevertheless,  the  movement  along 
both  these  lines  is  making  considerable  progress.  In  1919-20 
the  system  of  transporting  pupils  to  and  from  school  at  public 
expense  was  in  operation  in  50  of  the  54  counties,  a  total  of 
7,966  pupils  being  transported,  and  $216,689  spent  for  this  pur- 


pose.7* 


III.  THE  SYSTEM  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 


Extent. — The  public-school  system  of  Florida  is  one  continu- 
ous school  system,  extending  from  the  elementary  school  to  and 
through  the  state  university.  However,  the  uniform  system  of 
public  free  schools  consists  of  only  twelve  consecutive  school 
years  of  instruction.75 

Classification  of  the  Public  Free  Schools. — There  are  two 
classes  of  public  free  schools — elementary  and  secondary.  The 
elementary-,  or  common-school,  system  embraces  the  first  eight 
years  of  instruction,  each  year  being  designated  as  a  grade.  The 
first  two  grades  are  commonly  known  as  primary ;  third  to  sixth, 
intermediate;  and  seventh  and  eight,  grammar  grades.76  The 
secondary-,  or  high-school,  system  embraces  the  ninth,  tenth, 

72  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  6. 

73  See  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  15. 

74  See  page  116,  above. 

75  See  Laws  of  Florida,   1905,   Chap.  5382,   Sec.   i;   also   Gen.   Stats., 
Sec.  386. 

76  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1905,  Chap.  5382,  Sees.  2-3 ;  also  Gen.  Stats., 
Sees.  387-88. 


230  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

eleventh,  and  twelfth  years  of  instruction.  Schools  which  offer 
the  first  two  are  called  junior  high  schools;  the  first  three,  in- 
termediate; and  all  four,  senior.77 

Elementary-School  Instruction. — As  has  been  pointed  out  ear- 
lier,78 the  elementary-  and  high-school  courses  of  instruction  pre- 
pared in  1918  by  the  commission  appointed  by  State  Superinten- 
dent Sheats  have  been  adopted  by  the  State.  The  courses  of 
instruction  for  elementary  schools  include  the  subjects  required 
by  law,  and  also  those  which  may  be  required  by  the  various 
county  boards  of  education  where  facilities  for  teaching  are 
offered.  The  subjects  required  by  law  are  reading,  writing, 
number  work,  language,  arithmetic,  grammar,  spelling,  history, 
geography,  physiology,  hygiene  and  sanitation,  civil  government, 
agriculture,  and  morals  and  manners;  and  those  that  may  be 
required  by  the  county  boards  are  hand  work,  manual  training, 
home  economics,  nature  study,  music,  drawing,  and  physical  cul- 
ture.79 The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  program  of  studies 
by  grades.80 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  STATE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

OUTLINE  FOR  THE  FIRST  GRADE 

Subjects  Alternating  with    Days  per  week  Conditions^ 

Reading  5  R 

Number  Work  5  R 

Language  5  R 

Spelling  5  R 

Nature  Study  Hygiene                             2  R 

Hygiene  Nature  Study                    3  R 

Drawing  Hand  Work                      3  O 

Hand  work  Drawing                            2  O 

Music  2  O 

Writing  5  R 

Morals  and  Manners  82  R 

77  See  supra,  pp.  132-33- 

78  See  pages  118-19. 

79  See  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  and  High  Schools  of  Florida 
(rearranged  edition;  authorized  by  Chap.  7910,  Acts  of  1919),  pp.  6-10. 

80  For  a  presentation  of  this  program  in  detail  see  Course  of  Study  for 
Elementary  and  High  Schools  of  Florida,  pp.  14-169. 

81  That  is,  whether  required  by  law  (R),  or  optional  with  the  county 
boards  of  education  (O). 

82  This  subject  is  given  no  regular  place  on  the  recitation  schedule,  but 
two  or  three  periods  of  five  or  six  minutes  each  are  devoted  to  it  every 
week  at  the  opening  exercises. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        231 


OUTLINE   FOR  THE  SECOND  GRADE 

Subjects 

Alternating  with    Days  per  Week    Conditions 

Reading 

5                        R 

Number  Work 

5                        R 

Language 

5                      R 

Spelling 

5                      R 

Nature  Study 

Hygiene 

2                                 R 

Hygiene 

Nature  Study 

3                        R 

Drawing 

Hand  Work 

3                        0 

Hand  Work 

Drawing 

2                                 0 

Music 

- 

2                                 O 

Writing 

5                   R 

Morals  and  Manners  83 

R 

OUTLINE  FOR  THE  THIRD  GRADE 

Reading 

5                   R 

Number  Work 

5                   R 

Language 

5                   R 

Spelling 

5                   R 

Nature  Study  and  Home 

Ge- 

ography  84 

Hygiene 

4                         R 

Hygiene 

N.  Study  and  H.  Geog. 

i                       R 

Drawing 

Hand  Work 

3                        0 

Hand  Work 

Drawing 

2                                 O 

Music 

2                               O 

Writing 

5                       R 

Morals  and  Manners  83 

R 

OUTLINE   FOR   THE    FOURTH    GRADE 

Reading 

5                   R 

Arithmetic 

5                       R 

Language 

5                       R 

Spelling 

5                  R 

Geography 

Hygiene 

4                         R 

Hygiene 

Geography 

i                       R 

Drawing 

Hand  Work 

2                                 0 

Hand  Work 

Drawing 

2                                 0 

Music 

Drawing  and  H.  Work 

i                       0 

Writing 

5                   R 

Morals  and  Manners  83 

R 

83  See  footnote  eighty-two,  above. 

84  Nature  study  and  home  geography  are  taught  together. 


232  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

OUTLINE  FOR  THE  FIFTH  GRADE 


Subjects                                Alternating  with    Days  per  Week 

Conditions 

Reading 

5 

R 

Arithmetic 

5 

R 

Language 

5 

R 

Spelling 

5 

R 

Geography 

Hygiene 

4 

R 

Hygiene 

Geography 

i 

R 

U.  S.  History 

5 

R 

Drawing 

Hand  Work 

2 

0 

Hand  Work 

Drawing 

2 

0 

Music 

Drawing  and  H.  Work 

I 

0 

Writing 

5 

R 

Morals  and  Manners  85 

R 

OUTLINE  FOR  THE   SIXTH   GRADE 

Reading 

Hygiene 

3 

R 

Arithmetic 

5 

R 

Grammar 

5 

R 

Spelling 

5 

R 

Geography 

5 

R 

Florida  History 

5 

R 

Hygiene 

Reading 

2 

R 

Drawing 

Hand  Work  and  Music 

I 

0 

Hand  Work 

Drawing  and  Music 

I 

0 

Music 

Drawing  and  H.  Work 

I 

0 

Writing 

5 

R 

Morals  and  Manners  85 

R 

OUTLINE 

FOR  THE   SEVENTH    GRADE86 

Reading 

Sanitation 

3 

R 

Arithmetic 

5 

R 

Grammar 

5 

R 

Spelling 

5 

R 

Geography 

5 

R 

U.  S.  History 

5 

R 

Sanitation 

Reading 

2 

R 

Mechanical  Drawing 

Manual  Training 

2 

0 

Manual  Training 

Mechanical  Drawing 

3 

0 

Music 

Writing 

I 

0 

Writing 

Music 

4 

R 

Morals  and  Manners  85 

R 

85  See  footnote  eighty-two,  above. 

86  Home  economics  is  not  mentioned  here,  though  a  course  of  study  in 
this  subject  is  provided  in  the  state  curriculum.    It  is  understood  that  in 
schools  with  facilities  for  offering  the  optional  courses  the  girls  will  take 
home   economics,   or   something   else,   while   the   boys   will   take   manual 
training. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM 


233 


OUTLINE  FOR   THE  EIGHTH  GRADE  87 


Subjects 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Grammar 

Spelling 

U.  S.  History 

Physiology 

Civil  Government 

Agriculture 

Mechanical  Drawing 

Manual  Training 

Music 

Writing 

Morals  and  Manners88 


Alternating  with    Days  per  week     Conditions 


Spelling 


Reading 
Physiology 
U.  S.  History 


Manual  Training 
Mechanical  Drawing 
Writing 
Music 


Secondary-School  Instruction. — The  course  of  instruction  for 
high  schools  include  English,  history,  advanced  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, plane  and  solid  geometry,  plane  trigonometry,  general  sci- 
ence, physiology,  physical  geography,  botany,  zoology,  physics, 
chemistry,  Latin,  French,  Spanish,  social  science,  psychology, 
music,  drawing,  home  economics,  agriculture,  manual  training, 
commercial  English,  typewriting,  shorthand,  commercial  arith- 
metic, and  bookkeeping.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  the 
program  of  studies  by  types  of  schools  and  years. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  STATE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  89 
TWO-YEAR  HIGH-SCHOOL  CURRICULA  90 


First  Year 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Ancient  History 
Drawing 
Music 


Classical  Curriculum 

Second  Year 
English 

Plane  Geometry 
Algebra 
Latin 

American  History  and  Civics 
Drawing 
Music 


87  See  footnote  eighty-six,  above. 

88  See  footnote  eighty-two,  above. 

89  See  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  and  High  Schools  of  Florida 
(rearranged  edition;  authorized  by  Chap.  7910,  Acts  of  1919),  pp.  171-78. 

90  These  curricula  are  for  two-year  high  schools  having  at  least  one 
teacher  giving  full  time  to  high-school   subjects,  but  only  one  of   them 
should  be  attempted. 


234  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Scientific  Curriculum 


First  Year 
English 
Algebra 

Physical  Geography  or  General  Sci- 
ence 

Ancient  History 
Drawing 
Music 


Second  Year 
English 

Plane  Geometry  or  Algebra 
American  History  and  Civics 
Zoology  and  Botany 
Drawing 
Music 


THREE-YEAR    HIGH-SCHOOL   CURRICULA91 


First  Year 
English 
Algebra 
Latin 

Ancient  History 
Drawing 
Music 


English 
Algebra 
Physical  Geography  or 

General   Science 
Ancient  History 
Drawing 
Music 


Classical  Curriculum 

Second  Year 
English 

Plane  Geometry  or  Al- 
gebra 
Latin 

Modern  History 
Drawing 
Music 

Scientific  Curriculum 

English 

Plane  Geometry  or  Al- 
gebra 

Modern  History 
Zoology  and  Botany 
Drawing 
Music 


Third   Year 

English 

Plane  Geometry  or  Al- 
gebra and  Solid  Ge- 
ometry 

American  History  and 
Civics 

Drawing 

Music 


English 

Plane  Geometry  or  Al- 
gebra and  Solid  Ge- 
ometry 

Physics  or  Chemistry 

Drawing 

Music 


CURRICULUM   FOR   SMALL   FOUR- YEAR   HIGH    SCHOOLS  92 


First  Year 


Second  Year 


English 
Algebra 
Latin 
Phys.    Geog.    or 
Gen.  Science 
History  »3 

English 
Algebra 
Latin      *| 
Botany    I 
Zoology  J 
History  93 

two 


Third  Year 


English 


Fourth  Year 
English  9* 


Plane    Geometry    Plane  Trigonom- 


Latin 

Physics  or  Chem- 

istry 
English  History 


«t ry  an  d 
Arithmetic 

Latin  or  Physics 
or  Chemistry 

American  His- 
tory and  Civ- 
ics 


91  These  curricula  are  for  three-year  high  schools  having  not  less 
than  two  teachers  giving  full  time  to  high-school  subjects,  but  only  one 
of  them  should  be  followed. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM 


235 


FOUR- YEAR   HIGH-SCHOOL   CURRICULUM  95 


First  Year 


First  Semester 
Required  Subjects : 

English 

Algebra 

Ancient  History 
One  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

Physiology 

General  Science 

Physical  Geography 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Second  Semester 
Required  Subjects : 

English 

Algebra 

Ancient  History 
One  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

Physiology 

General  Science 

Physical  Geography 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Second  Year 


Required  Subjects: 

English 

Algebra  or  Plane  Geometry 
Two  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

Modern  History 

Botany  or  Zoology 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Required  Subjects: 

English 

Algebra  or  Plane  Geometry 
Two  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

Modern  History 

Botany  or  Zoology 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


92  Schools  having  at  least  two  teachers   who  give  their  full  time  to 
high-school   subjects  and   a  principal   who  teaches  not  more   than   four 
classes  daily. 

93  First-  and  second-year  classes  in  history  are  combined. 

94  Third-  and  fourth-year  classes  in  English  are  combined. 

95  This  is  for  four-year  high  schools  having  not  less  than  four  teachers 
besides  the  principal  giving  their  full  time  to  high-school  subjects. 


236 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


Third  Year 


First  Semester 
Required   Subjects: 

English 

Algebra  or  Plane  Geometry 
Two  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Chemistry  or  Physics 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Second  Semester 
Required  Subjects: 

English 

Plane  Geometry96 
Two  of  the  Following:97 

Algebra 

Solid  Geometry 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Chemistry  or  Physics 

Agriculture 

Home  Economics 

Manual  Training 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Fourth  Year 


Required  Subjects: 

English 

American  History  and  Civics 
Two  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Social  Science  or  Psychology 

Chemistry  or  Physics 

Plane  Trigonometry 

Manual  Training 

Agriculture 

Commercial  English 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


Required  Subjects: 

English 

American  History  and  Civics 
Two  of  the  Following: 

Latin 

French 

Spanish 

Social  Science  or  Psychology 

Chemistry  or  Physics 

Solid  Geometry  or  Arithmetic 

Manual  Training 

Agriculture 

Commercial  English 

Bookkeeping 

Typewriting 

Shorthand 

Drawing 

Music 


NOTE. — One  science  is  required  during  the  four  years. 

96  If  not  taken  the  second  year. 
07  Three  if  geometry  is  not  taken. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        237 

Military  Instruction  and  Training. — By  act  approved  June  9, 
I9I9,98  the  state  board  of  education  is  empowered  and  directed  to 
prescribe  a  course  in  military  instruction  and  training  to  be  used 
in  high  schools  having  an  enrollment  of  twenty-five  or  more  boys 
in  and  above  the  ninth  grade,  and  to  prescribe  the  kind  of  uni- 
form and  equipment  to  be  used  by  those  taking  the  course.  The 
board  of  education  for  each  county  is  authorized  to  designate 
the  school  or  schools  in  which  such  course  may  be  maintained, 
and  to  procure  the  necessary  equipment,  giving  security  therefor 
when  leased  or  borrowed  from  the  Federal  Government.  The 
students  taking  this  course  are  required  to  furnish  their  own 
uniforms. 

Vocational  Education. — Any  county  board  of  public  instruc- 
tion, or  board  of  trustees  of  any  school  of  less  than  college  grade 
under  public  control,  may  make  provision  for  instruction  of 
less  than  college  grade  in  home  economics,  agricultural  pursuits, 
or  trades  and  industries,  and  any  such  county  board  or  board 
of  trustees  may  use  any  moneys  raised  by  taxation  in  the  same 
way  as  moneys  for  other  school  purposes  are  used  in  establish- 
ing and  maintaining  public  instruction  of  less  than  college  grade." 
And,  whenever  any  school  offering  such  instruction  has  been  or- 
ganized in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  state 
board  for  vocational  education,  and  approved  by  this  board,  it 
is  entitled  to  share  in  the  state  and  federal  funds  available  for 
the  promotion  of  vocational  education100  to  an  amount  of  at 
least  fifty  per  cent  of  the  moneys  expended  for  the  salaries  of 
the  teachers  of  vocational  subjects  therein.101  In  1918-19  there 
were  sixteen  such  schools  in  the  State102  —  one  for  trade  and 
industrial  work,  five  for  home  economics,  and  ten  for  agricul- 
ture.103 

98  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7911. 

"See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6833,  Sees.  1-2;  and  Laws  of  1919, 
Chap.  7592,  Sec.  7. 

100  For  the  appropriations  for  1917-21  see  page  208,  above. 

101  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1919,  Chap.  7592,  Sec.  8. 

102  As  is  shown  above   (pp.  140-49),  there  were  other  public  schools 
which  offered  some  instruction  in  vocational  subjects. 

103  See  An.  Rep.  of  Fed.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1919,  p.  214;  also  Bien.  Rep. 
of  St.  Bd.  for  Voc.  Ed.,  1917-19,  in  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins., 
1916-18,  pp.  772-80.  For  a  detailed  outline  of  the  first  two  years'  work 


238  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Special  Types  of  Schools. — Provision  is  also  made  for  some 
special  types  of  schools.104  In  the  first  place,  there  are  three 
state  institutions  for  special  classes,  namely,  the  Florida  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  at  St.  Augustine,  the  Florida  Indus- 
trial School  for  Boys,  at  Marianna,  and  the  Florida  Industrial 
School  for  Girls,  at  Ocala.  These  schools  are  supported,  for 
the  most  part,  by  state  appropriations.105  The  Florida  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind  is  for  the  care,  education,  and  main- 
tenance of  all  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes  of  the  State  between 
six  and  twenty-one  years  old,  admission  thereto  being  granted 
upon  certificate  from  any  board  of  county  commissioners.  It 
is  under  the  management  of  the  state  board  of  control.106  The 
other  two  institutions  are  reclamation  schools  for  delinquent 
boys  and  girls,  respectively,  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twenty- 
one.  They  are  under  the  management  of  the  board  of  commis- 
sioners of  state  institutions.107  The  courses  of  instruction  and 
training  in  all  three  of  these  schools  are  designed  to  meet  the 
needs  and  abilities  of  the  pupils  therein. 

In  the  second  place,  county  boards  of  education  and  boards 
of  district  trustees  are  authorized  to  establish  and  maintain 
kindergartens  in  connection  with  the  schools  under  their  direction 
and  control;  provided,  however,  that  the  various  communities 
shall  guarantee  the  attendance  of  at  least  twenty-five  kinder- 
garten pupils ;  provided,  further,  that  every  kindergarten,  when 
established,  shall  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  principal  of 
the  school  with  which  it  is  connected ;  and  provided,  still  further, 
that  no  person  shall  be  employed  as  principal  of  a  kindergarten 
department  who  does  not  hold  a  certificate  of  graduation  from 
a  reputable  kindergarten  training  school. 

And,  in  the  third  place,  there  is  a  very  recent  law  —  passed 
by  the  last  legislature  —  which  provides  that  wherever  there  are 

now  required  of  these  schools  see  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  and 
High  Schools  of  Florida  (rearranged  edition;  authorized  by  Chap.  7910, 
Acts  of  1919),  pp.  178-213. 

104  See  pages  149-52,  above. 

105  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6840,  Sec.  13. 

106  See  page  216,  above. 

107  This  board  is  composed  of  the  governor  and  the  administrative  of- 
ficers of  the  executive  department. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        239 

fifteen  children  who,  for  any  cause  except  mental  or  physical 
disability  or  the  completion  of  the  grammar  grades,  are  exempted 
from  regular  school  attendance  at  any  school  or  schools  three 
miles  or  less  apart,  and  residing  or  employed  within  the  regular 
attendance  area  of  such  school  or  schools,  the  county  board  of 
education  is  authorized  and  required  to  establish  and  maintain 
a  part-time  school  or  schools.  Such  school  or  schools  must  be 
in  session  at  least  one  hundred  forty-four  hours  each  school 
year  during  regular  employment  hours,  and  furnish  instruction 
in  subjects  designed  to  train  the  children  for  civic  or  vocational 
activities.108 

Higher  and  Professional  Education. — In  addition  to  the  three 
state  educational  institutions  mentioned  above,  the  State  main- 
tains three  institutions  for  higher  and  professional  education, — 
the  University  of  Florida,  at  Gainesville,  the  Florida  State  Col- 
lege for  Women,  at  Tallahassee,  and  the  Florida  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  for  Negroes,  also  situated  at  Tallahas- 
see,—  which  may  be  said  to  form  the  culmination  of  its  public- 
school  system.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Florida  School  for  the 
Deaf  and  the  Blind,  these  are  under  the  management  of  the  state 
board  of  control.109  They  are  supported  mostly  by  state  appro- 
priations and  the  income  from  federal  grants.  As  to  scope  and 
quality  of  instruction  they  compare  favorably  with  corresponding 
institutions  in  most  of  the  other  states.110 

IV.  SCHOOL  ENVIRONMENT  AND  EQUIPMENT 

Buildings  and  Sites. — The  county  boards  of  public  instruction 
are  authorized  and  directed  to  provide,  as  far  as  practicable, 
suitable  school  buildings  and  grounds,  together  with  proper 
apparatus,  for  all  children  of  school  age  residing  within  their 
respective  counties  and  desiring  to  attend  the  public  schools 
therein.111  The  site  for  each  school  must  be  healthful  and  pleas- 
ant; conveniently  located  for  the  accommodation  of  all  children 
entitled  to  attend ;  and  contain  at  least  one-half  acre  in  the  rural 

i°8  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8550. 

109  por  the  powers  and  duties  of  this  board  see  page  216,  above. 

110  For  this  scope  of  instruction  see  pages  163-68,  above. 

111  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Paras.  2  and  5. 


240  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

districts,  and  as  nearly  that  amount  as  is  practicable  in  the 
urban.112  Should  the  school  board  of  any  county  fail  to  supply 
such  accommodations,  the  county  forfeits  its  proportion  of  the 
state  school-funds  during  such  neglect.113 

Upon  the  request  of  the  county  board  of  public  instruction 
of  any  county,  after  an  affirmative  vote  of  the  qualified  tax- 
paying  electors  thereof,  the  board  of  county  commissioners  may 
contract  debts  to  provide  school  buildings  and  grounds,  and  bor- 
row money  to  discharge  any  debt  incurred  by  the  purchase  of 
real  estate  for  such  purpose.114  In  addition,  any  special-tax 
school  district,  by  a  majority  vote  of  its  legal  voters,  at  an  elec- 
tion ordered  by  the  county  board  of  public  instruction  on  petition 
of  one-fourth  of  the  voters  of  the  said  district,115  may  issue 
bonds  for  any  exclusive  use  of  its  public  schools.116  However, 
if  the  bonds  are  for  building  purposes,  the  county  board  must, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  school  trustees  of  the  district, 
perpare  plans  and  specifications  for  the  contract  for  constructing 
the  same.117 

Every  teacher  is  directed  to  see  that  the  school  building  in 
which  he  or  she  teaches,  and  all  appurtenances  belonging  thereto, 
are  not  unnecessarily  injured.118  Whoever  injures  such  property 
without  cause  may  be  punished  by  imprisonment  of  not  more 
than  one  year  or  by  fine  of  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars.119 
And  whoever  places  any  obscene  word,  image  or  device  on  such 
property  may  be  imprisoned  not  exceeding  fifteen  days  or  fined 
not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars ;  however,  this  does  not  apply 
to  pupils  subject  to  the  discipline  of  the  school.120 

"2  Ibid.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  4. 
"3  ibid.,  Sec.  326. 
"*  Ibid.,  Sec.  324. 

115  Except  when  the  district  is  located  wholly  or  partially  in  cities  of 
25,000  population,   or  more,   according  to   the  recent   federal   census,   in 
which  case  the  petition  may  be  dispensed  with  and  the  proposition  of  is- 
suing the  said  bonds  may  be  initiated  by  the  county  board  of  public  in- 
struction or  by  the  trustees  of  the  district,  or  by  both  bodies   (see  Laws 
of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8543). 

116  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6542. 

117  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6967. 

118  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  379,  Para.  3. 
"•/Wrf.,  Sec.  3430. 

120 /&«/.,  Sec.  3541. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        241 

All  public-school  buildings  of  two  or  more  stories  in  height 
must  be  provided  with  adequate  stairways  or  fire  escapes  by 
the  board  of  public  instruction  of  the  county  in  which  such 
building  or  buildings  are  located.121  The  state  superintendent 
is  directed  to  formulate  and  prescribe  tactics  of  instruction  for 
fire  drills  for  all  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  each  teacher 
is  required  to  instruct  the  pupils  of  his  or  her  school  in  such 
drills.121 

Health  Regulations. — There  are  five  provisions  looking  to  the 
promotion  of  the  health  of  the  pupils :  ( I )  the  school  buildings 
must  be  located  only  in  healthful  places;122  (2)  they  must  be 
provided  with  sanitary  toilets;123  (3)  a  course  of  instruction 
in  hygiene  must  be  offered  in  the  primary  and  intermediate 
grades;124  (4)  the  teachers  are  directed  to  require  all  pupils 
under  their  control  to  observe  personal  cleanliness;125  and  (5) 
the  state  board  of  health  is  directed  to  make  adequate  provision 
for  the  physical  examination  of  all  school  children  in  the  State, 
every  child  being  examined  at  least  once  each  year.126 

Textbooks. — The  board  of  commissioners  of  state  institutions, 
which  is  constituted  a  state  textbook  commission,  is  authorized 
and  directed  to  select  and  adopt  a  uniform  system  of  textbooks 
for  the  elementary  and  high  schools  of  the  State;127  provided, 
however,  that  all  books  must  first  be  submitted  to  a  subcom- 
mission,  which  is  composed  of  seven  members  appointed  by  the 
governor  upon  the  nomination  of  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  which  is  directed  to  examine  all  books 
submitted  and  to  report  on  the  same  to  the  commission,  indi- 
cating first  choice,  second  choice,  and  on  down  to  the  fifth  choice, 
for  each  subject;  provided,  further,  that  the  said  commission 
is  authorized  and  directed  to  adopt  one  basal  and  not  more  than 
two  supplementary  texts  on  each  high-school  subject;  provided, 

121  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1909,  Chap.  5937- 

122  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  4. 

123  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6836. 

124  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sees.  389-90. 

125  Ibid.,  Sec.  379,  Para.  2. 

128  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6829. 

127  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7374;  Laws  of  1921,  Chap.  8500; 
also  supra,  pp.  I75-7& 


242  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

still  further,  that  none  of  such  textbooks  shall  contain  anything 
of  a  partisan  or  sectarian  character;  and  provided,  still  further, 
that  all  adoptions  must  be  for  eight  years.  Such  books  must 
be  introduced  and  used  as  textbooks  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
others  in  all  public  free  schools  of  the  State.  However,  supple- 
mentary books  may  be  used,  and  books  on  a  higher  branch  than 
those  required  by  law;  provided,  that  the  supplementary  books 
are  prescribed  by  the  commission,  and  that  the  higher  branch 
is  not  taught  to  the  exclusion  of  the  required  branches. 

The  county  boards  of  public  instruction  are  required  to  furnish 
free  of  cost  the  textbooks  necessary  for  the  use  of  all  indigent 
children  in  their  respective  counties  who  are  not  over  fifteen 
years  of  age;  provided,  however,  that  when  the  children  reside 
in  a  special-tax  school  district  the  cost  of  such  books  must  be 
charged  against  and  paid  for  out  of  the  funds  credited  to  the 
district.128 

V.  THE  TEACHING  STAFF 

Examination  and  Certification. — No  person  is  permitted  to  teach 
in  any  of  the  public  free  schools  of  the  State  who  does  not  hold  a 
valid  teacher's  certificate  covering  the  subject  or  subjects  taught. 
There  are  in  all  fifteen  different  forms  which  may  be  issued, — 
temporary,  courtesy  temporary,  primary,  third-,  second-,  and 
first-grade,  special,  state,  life  primary,  life  first-grade,  life  state, 
graduate  first-grade,  graduate  special,  graduate  state,  and  life 
graduate  state, —  all  of  which  are  valid  in  any  part  of  the  State, 
and  for  the  time  specified,  though  any  of  them  may  be  suspended 
or  revoked  by  a  county  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  or 
by  the  state  superintendent  upon  his  own  motion,  or  upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  state  board  of  examiners,  where  the 
holder  proves  incompetent,  unsuccessful  or  grossly  immoral.121 
As  has  been  stated  earlier,130  all  examinations  that  are  required 
for  the  issuance  of  certificates  are  conducted  by  the  state  board 
of  examiners. 

128  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1911,  Chap.  6163. 

129  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7372;  and  Laws  of  1919,  Chaps. 
7373,  7914,  and  7942. 

130  See  supra,  pp.  192  and  217. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        243 

A  temporary  certificate  may  be  issued  without  examination  by 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  upon  the  request 
of  a  county  superintendent  in  an  emergency ;  provided,  however, 
that  it  shall  be  valid  only  until  the  state  board  oi  examiners 
shall  hold  an  examination  within  the  county,  or  an  adjacent 
county,  in  which  the  holder  of  the  certificate  is  employed.  A 
courtesy  temporary  certificate,  valid  for  two  months,  may  be 
issued  by  the  state  superintendent  to  any  person  holding  a  valid 
teacher's  certificate  issued  in  another  state,  when  such  holder 
is  endorsed  by  the  superintendent  of  the  county  wherein  he  or 
she  has  been  employed  to  teach.  A  primary  certificate,  valid  for 
four  years  in  the  first  three  grades  of  regular  graded  schools 
of  four  teachers  or  more,  may  be  issued  to  persons  who  have 
received  special  instruction  for  at  least  one  year  in  primary 
methods  and  practice  teaching  in  a  recognized  normal  school, 
or  its  equivalent,  and  passed  an  examination  on  the  required 
branches.  The  third-,  second-,  and  first-grade  certificates,  valid 
for  one,  three,  and  five  years,  respectively,  may  be  issued  to  per- 
sons who  have  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  on  the  required 
branches.  A  special  certificate,  valid  for  teaching  only  the  sub- 
ject or  subjects  covered  by  it,  and  for  a  period  of  five  years, 
is  issuable  to  applicants  who  have  shown  ability  in  teaching  one 
or  more  subjects  not  embraced  in  the  requirements  for  a  second- 
grade  certificate,  and  made  a  grade  of  ninety  per  cent  in  an 
examination  on  all  the  subjects  covered  by  the  same.  A  state 
certificate,  valid  for  five  years,  is  issuable  only  to  applicants  who 
have  had  twenty-four  months  of  successful  experience  in  teach- 
ing, and  made  an  average  grade  of  eighty-five  per  cent,  with 
none  below  sixty,  in  an  examination  on  geometry,  trigonometry, 
physics,  botany,  zoology,  Latin,  rhetoric,  English  literature,  psy- 
chology, and  general  history.  A  life  primary  certificate,  valid 
during  the  life  of  the  holder  in  the  primary  department  of  any 
public  school,  may  be  granted  to  any  holder  of  a  valid  primary 
certificate  who  has  taught  successfully  under  such  certificate  for 
a  period  of  thirty-two  months  in  the  primary  department  of  a 
regular  graded  school  of  not  less  than  four  teachers.  A  life 
first-grade  certificate,  valid  for  life,  may  be  granted  to  any  holder 


244  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  a  valid  first-grade  certificate  who  has  taught  twenty  years  in 
the  public  free  schools  of  the  State,  the  last  ten  being  on  first- 
grade  certificates ;  or  to  any  holder  of  two  first-grade  certificates, 
each  with  an  average  grade  of  at  least  ninety  per  cent  and  the 
last  one  valid,  who  has  taught  six  years  on  the  two  certificates 
held;  or  to  any  holder  of  a  first-grade  certificate  who  has  had 
such  certificate  extended  three  times  by  attendance  at  either  of 
the  state  summer  schools,131  and  has  taught  six  years  on  the 
certificate  held.  A  life  state  certificate  of  perpetual  validity 
may  be  granted  to  any  applicant  who  holds  a  valid  state  certifi- 
cate, has  taught  successfully  in  a  high  school  or  college  of  the 
State  for  eighteen  months  on  such  certificate,  and  has  the  en- 
dorsement of  three  holders  of  life  state  certificates  as  possessing 
eminent  ability  both  as  a  teacher  and  a  disciplinarian.  A  grad- 
uate state  certificate  is  issuable  to  graduates  of  the  normal  and 
collegiate  departments  of  the  University  of  Florida  and  the  Flor- 
ida State  College  for  Women,  and  of  any  chartered  college  or 
university  which  meets  the  requirements  of  the  state  board  of 
education  and  the  state  board  of  control;  provided,  that  such 
graduates  have  taken  three-twentieths  of  the  work  required  for 
graduation  in  psychology  and  education,  and  during  their  junior 
and  senior  years  made  a  general  average  of  not  less  than  eighty- 
five  per  cent  on  all  subjects  pursued  and  completed,  with  no 
grade  below  sixty.132  Graduate  first-grade,  graduate  special,  and 
also  graduate  state  certificates  may  be  issued  to  persons  who 
have  graduated  since  June  15,  1905,  from  any  standard  univer- 
sity, college,  or  normal  school  requiring  four  years  of  work  for 
graduation,  and  have  had  twenty-four  months  of  successful  ex- 
perience in  teaching  since  graduating,  the  form  of  certificate 
issued  being  determined  by  a  commission  consisting  of  the  state 
superintendent  and  the  president  and  dean  of  the  normal  de- 
partment of  the  Florida  State  College  for  Women.  And  finally, 

131  See  page  191,  above,  for  the  provision  in  regard  to  the  extension  of 
certificates. 

132  However,  in  lieu  of  such  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  psychology 
and   education,   twenty-four  months'   teaching   experience    in    the   public 
schools  of  the  State  may  be  accepted  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap. 
8544). 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        245 

a  life  graduate  state  certificate  of  perpetual  validity  may  be  issued 
without  examination  by  the  state  superintendent  to  any  teacher 
holding  a  graduate  state  certificate  who  has  taught  successfully 
in  the  State  for  twenty-four  months  on  a  graduate  state  certifi- 
cate, and  has  the  endorsement  of  three  holders  of  life  certificates 
as  showing  eminent  ability  in  teaching  and  school  government. 

By  very  recent  legislation,133  any  applicant  filing  with  the  state 
superintendent  a  valid  teacher's  certificate  from  another  state 
whose  requirements  are  similar  and  fully  equal  to  those  of 
Florida  are  entitled  to  a  Florida  teacher's  certificate  of  like 
grade,  and  the  state  superintendent  is  authorized  and  directed 
to  issue  the  same;  provided,  first,  that  the  certificate  filed  for 
substitution  is  equivalent  to  and  not  lower  in  grade  than  a  Flor- 
ida first-grade  or  state  certificate;  second,  that  the  applicant 
presents  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  graduated  from  an  ap- 
proved four-year  high  school,  and,  in  addition,  of  having  com- 
pleted from  two  to  four  years'  work  in  a  standard  college  or 
normal  school;  and,  further,  that  he  or  she  furnishes  satis- 
factory evidence  of  good  moral  character  and  of  having  taught 
successfully  for  twenty-four  months,  submits  a  health  certificate 
signed  by  a  reputable  practicing  physician,  and  pays  a  fee  of 
five  dollars.  Such  certificate  is  valid  for  teaching  in  any  public 
school  of  the  State  for  a  period  of  three  years  from  its  date, 
but  in  no  grade  above  the  tenth  unless  the  applicant  has  com- 
pleted four  years'  work  in  a  standard  college  or  normal  school, 
in  which  case  it  is  valid  for  teaching  in  all  the  high-school 
grades.  Moreover,  all  substituted  certificates  have  all  the  rights 
and  benefits  as  to  life  extension  conveyed  to  the  holders  of  sim- 
ilar certificates  obtained  by  examination  in  the  State,  and  are 
likewise  subject  to  revocation.  However,  such  certificates  can 
be  issued  only  to  applicants  from  states  which  extend  to  Florida 
certificate  holders  these  same  privileges. 

Appointment  and  Tenure. — The  board  of  public  instruction  in 
each  county  is  authorized  and  directed  to  appoint  the  teachers 
for  every  public  free  school  of  the  county ; 134  provided,  however, 

133  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chaps.  8511  and  8542. 

134  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  6;  and  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed., 
Reg.  8. 


246  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

that  in  special-tax  school  districts  the  trustees  shall  have  the 
power  to  nominate  the  teachers;135  provided,  further,  that  in 
case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  teaching  staff  of  any  school  between 
the  regular  meetings  of  the  county  board  the  county  superin- 
tendent shall  have  the  power  to  fill  the  same,  subject  to  the 
ratification  of  the  board  at  its  next  regular  meeting ; 136  that  in 
case  of  a  leave  of  absence,  not  exceeding  three  days,  the  teacher 
on  leave  may  secure  a  substitute,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
principal,  the  county  superintendent,  the  trustees,  or  the  local 
supervisor;137  and  that  in  case  of  a  leave  of  absence  of  more 
than  three  days  a  substitute  shall  be  secured  by  the  county  board, 
the  county  superintendent,  or  the  trustees ; 138  and  provided,  still 
further,  that  no  teacher  shall  be  appointed  for  a  term  of  service 
extending  beyond  his  or  her  certificate.139 

Salaries  and  General  Duties. — The  county  boards  of  public 
instruction  are  also  authorized  and  directed  to  contract  with  and 
pay  the  salaries  of  the  teachers  of  their  respective  counties ;  14° 
provided,  however,  that  no  board  shall  contract  with  or  pay 
any  person  for  services  as  a  teacher  who  does  not  hold  a  valid 
teacher's  certificate;141  provided,  further,  that  no  board  shall 
issue  a  warrant  to  any  teacher  unless  his  or  her  monthly  report 
is  made  on  the  blanks  furnished  and  according  to  direction;142 
and  provided,  still  further,  that  a  substitute  teacher,  if  employed 
for  not  exceeding  three  days,  shall  be  paid  by  the  teacher  whose 
place  he  or  she  has  taken;143  and  if  employed  for  more  than 
three  days,  by  the  county  board  or  the  trustees ; 144  and  that  all 
teachers  absent  without  leave  shall  forfeit  their  pay  during  such 
absence,  and  also  those  absent  on  leave,  if  they  are  away  over 
three  days.145 

135  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  408. 

136  See  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  24. 

137  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  381. 
188  7Wd.,  Sec.  382. 

139  See  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  18. 

140  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  347,  Para.  6. 

141  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chap.  7372,  Sec.  I. 

142  See  Regs,  of  St.  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Reg.  6. 
*43  See  Gen.  Stats,  Sec.  381. 

i44  Ibid.,  Sec.  383. 
«s  Ibid.,  Sec.  382. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        247 

The  general  duties  of  every  teacher  are  as  follows : 146  ( I )  to 
labor  faithfully  and  earnestly  for  the  advancement  of  the  pupils 
in  their  studies  and  moral  development;  (2)  to  require  the  pupils 
to  keep  clean,  observe  good  manners,  and  refrain  from  bad 
habits;  (3)  to  see  that  the  school  property  is  not  unnecessarily 
injured;  (4)  to  enforce  needful  restrictions  upon  the  conduct 
of  pupils  in  the  school  building  and  on  the  grounds,  but  avoiding 
at  all  times  unnecessary  severity  and  measures  of  punishment; 
(5)  to  suspend  pupils  for  ten  days  on  account  of  gross  immor- 
ality, misconduct,  or  persistent  violation  of  the  rules,  giving  im- 
mediate notice  to  the  parents  or  guardians  and  to  the  local  school 
supervisor;  (6)  to  hold  a  public  examination  at  the  close  of 
each  term;  (7)  to  commemorate  Mother's  Day147  with  appro- 
priate exercises;148  (8)  to  make  a  monthly  report  to  the  county 
superintendent  of  public  instruction ;  (9)  to  deliver  the  keys  and 
all  school  property  to  the  supervisor  on  suspending  or  closing 
the  school;  and  (10)  to  conform  at  all  times  to  the  regulations 
of  the  state  department  of  education.149 

Training  and  Supervision. — For  the  professional  training  of 
teachers  the  State  maintains  a  normal  school  and  college  of  edu- 
cation in  both  the  state  institutions  of  higher  learning  for  the 
white  race  and  a  normal  department  in  the  one  for  negroes.150 
In  addition,  it  maintains  a  summer  school  at  each  of  the  three 
higher  educational  institutions,151  and  helps  to  maintain  a  county 
teacher-training  department  in  several  of  the  high  schools.152 
For  the  maintenance  of  these  summer  schools  and  teacher-train- 
ing departments  the  State  makes  annual  appropriations.153 

There  are  also  provisions  for  the  supervisory  oversight  of  the 
teachers.  As  we  have  seen,  there  are  three  state  supervisors — 
one  for  the  high  schools  and  two  for  the  elementary  rural  schools. 
These,  of  course,  endeavor  to  supervise  all  the  teachers  of  the 

146  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  379. 

147  The  first  Friday  in  November  of  each  year. 

148  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1911,  Chap.  6204. 

149  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  384. 

150  See  supra,  pp.  163-68  and  182. 

151  Ibid.,  pp.  193-94. 

152  Ibid.,  pp.  183-88. 

153  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1917,  Chaps.  7279  and  7371. 


248  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

type  of  work.  For  the  most  part,  it  is  done  by  the  county 
superintendents  and  the  local  school  supervisors.  However,  there 
are  a  few  counties  which  employ  an  assistant  county  superin- 
tendent to  give  additional  supervision. 

VI.  REVENUE  FOR  THE  SUPPORT  OF  PUBLIC  FREE  SCHOOLS 

Sources  of  School  Revenue. — The  public  free  schools  draw 
their  support  almost  entirely  from  five  sources  —  the  interest 
on  a  permanent  state  school-fund,  a  state  property  tax,  county 
and  district  property  taxes,  and  poll  taxes.  The  State  has  a 
permanent  school-fund154  which,  at  last  report,155  was  $1,877,880. 
In  addition,  it  levies  an  annual  tax  of  one  mill  on  the  dollar 
of  all  taxable  property  therein.156  The  receipts  from  these  two 
state  sources  in  1919-20  amounted  to  $427,507  —  $68,338  from 
the  former  and  $359,169  from  the  latter157  —  or  about  7  per 
cent  of  the  total  income  for  that  year.158 

Each  county  is  required  to  levy  annually  a  tax  of  not  less 
than  three  nor  more  than  ten  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable 
property  in  the  same,159  and  a  special  capitation  tax  of  one 
dollar  upon  each  male  inhabitant  between  twenty-one  and  fifty- 
five  years  of  age  who  has  not  lost  a  limb  in  battle.160  The  re- 
ceipts from  these  two  county  sources  in  1919-20  amounted  to 
$3>396,767— $3»25i,336  on  property  and  $145*431  on  polls161— 
or  54  per  cent  of  the  total  income  for  schools.158 

Furthermore,  any  special-tax  school  district,  of  which  there 
were  883  at  last  report,162  may  levy  an  annual  property  tax  up  to 
three  mills  on  the  dollar;163  and,  if  bonds  have  been  issued  for 

154  For  its  sources  see  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  XII,  Sec.  4. 

155  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  40. 

156  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  XII,  Sec.  6. 

157  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  124. 

158  Excluding  receipts  from  loans,  bond  sales,  and  balance   on  hand 
from  school  year  1918-19. 

159  See  Laws  Relating  to  Education  Enacted  by  the  Florida  Legisla- 
ture of  1917  and  1919  (compiled  by  W.  N.  Sheats,  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  1919),  p.  I. 

160  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  508. 

161  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  pp.  120-21. 

162  Ibid.,  p.  122. 

163  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  XII,   Sec.  10;  and  Gen.   Stats., 
Sees.  410-13. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM        249 

the  exclusive  use  of  public  free  schools,  it  may  levy  an  additional 
tax  up  to  five  mills  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  interest  on 
State.  Moreover,  each  county  makes  some  provision  for  this 
such  bonds  and  of  creating  a  sinking  fund  for  the  payment  of 
the  principal  at  maturity  of  the  same.164  Hence,  a  special-tax 
district  may  levy  as  much  as  eight  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all 
taxable  property  therein.  In  1919-20  the  revenue  from  district 
taxation  was  $I,4I9,I3O,165  or  23  per  cent  of  the  entire  school 
income.166 

The  remainder  of  the  revenue  for  the  support  of  public  free 
schools  comes  from  quite  a  number  of  sources;167  for  example, 
dividends,  interest  on  bank  deposits  and  loans,  sale  of  bonds, 
collections  for  payment  of  bonds,  fines  and  forfeitures,  and  tui- 
tion of  non-resident  pupils.168  In  1919-20  the  revenue  from 
these  minor  sources  was  $i,on,896,169  or  16  per  cent  of  the  entire 
revenue.166 

Apportionment  of  the  School  Revenue. — The  annual  income 
from  the  permanent  school-fund,  together  with  the  annual  state 
school-tax  of  one  mill,  is  apportioned  to  the  various  counties170 
by  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  on  the  average 
daily  attendance  at  school  for  the  preceding  year.171  The  moneys 
received  from  these  two  sources  by  the  several  counties,  and 
also  those  raised  or  collected  by  them  for  school  purposes,  are 
disbursed  in  each  county  by  the  county  board  of  education,  as 
it  sees  fit,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  public  free  schools.172 
And  the  school  funds  of  the  special-tax  school  districts,  which 
are  derived,  for  the  most  part,  from  district  taxes,  are  appor- 

i«*  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1913,  Chap.  6542 ;  Laws  of  1915,  Chap.  6967 ; 
and  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1912-14,  p.  38. 

165  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  122. 

166  Excluding  receipts  from  loans,  bond  sales,  and  balance  on  hand 
from  school  year  1918-19. 

167  These  vary  in  the  different  counties. 

168  See  Biennial  Reports  of  County  Superintendents;  in  Bien.  Rep.  of 
Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  pp.  547-769. 

169  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  pp.  17  and  124. 

170  The  apportionments  are  made  semiannually. 

171  See    Constitution    of   Florida,    Art.    XII,    Sec.   7    (as    amended    in 
1894)  ;  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  142,  Paras.  4-5 ;  also  supra,  pp.  200  and  214. 

172  See  Constitution  of  Florida,  Art.  XII,  Sec.  9. 


250  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

tioned  to  the  different  educational  purposes  in  each  of  the  dis- 
tricts by  the  board  of  trustees  thereof ;  provided,  however,  that 
it  shall  make  a  fair  and  equitable  distribution  of  the  same  among 
all  the  schools  under  its  supervision.173 

Local  Bonds  and  Indebtedness. — As  already  stated,174  the 
board  of  county  commissioners  of  any  county,  after  an  affirm- 
ative vote  of  the  legal  voters  thereof,  and  upon  the  request  of 
the  county  board  of  education,  is  authorized  to  contract  debts 
for  the  provision  of  school  sites  and  buildings,  and,  if  necessary, 
to  borrow  money  for  the  payment  of  the  indebtedness.  In  ad- 
dition, when  there  is  no  money  in  the  county  school- fund  for 
paying  outstanding  warrants,  the  county  board  of  education  is  em- 
powered to  borrow  money  at  not  exceeding  eight  per  cent  interest 
to  pay  the  same;  provided,  however,  that  it  shall  not  borrow  in 
any  one  year  more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  amount  estimated 
by  it  to  be  required  for  the  support  of  the  schools.175  In  1919-20 
a  total  of  $1,726,187  was  borrowed  by  49  of  the  54  counties.176 

Also,  as  stated  above,174  any  special-tax  school  district  may 
issue  bonds  for  the  exclusive  use  of  public  free  schools;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  resident 
qualified  electors  of  the  district  shall  first  petition  the  county 
board  of  education  for  the  privilege  of  issuing  such  bonds, 
setting  forth  in  their  petition  the  amount  of  bonds  desired 
and  the  purposes  thereof;  provided,  further,  that  the  county 
board  shall  determine  the  amount  of  bonds  required,  the  rate 
of  interest  to  be  paid  thereon,  and  the  time  when  the  principal 
and  interest  shall  become  due;  and  provided,  still  further,  that 
a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  at  the  election  ordered  by  the  board 

17s  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  409. 

174  See  page  240. 

175  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  6828. 

By  an  act  approved  May  21,  1921,  the  county  board  of  education  is 
empowered  also  "to  issue  and  sell  interest-bearing  coupon  warrants  in  a 
sum  or  sums  not  to  exceed  the  total  amount  of  such  outstanding  and  un- 
paid school  warrants,  notes,  or  other  evidences  of  debt";  provided,  how- 
ever, that  such  interest-bearing  coupon  warrants  shall  bear  interest  at  a 
rate  not  to  exceed  eight  per  cent,  and  shall  be  issued  to  run  for  more 
than  twenty  years  (see  Laws  of  Florida,  1921,  Chap.  8548). 

176  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  124. 


CONSPECTUS  OF  PRESENT  SYSTEM  251 

shall  be  in  favor  of  the  bond  issue.  In  1919-20  the  sum  of 
$936,331  was  raised  by  this  means.177 

Care  of  the  School  Revenue. — The  educational  funds  of  the 
State  are  entrusted  to  the  state  board  of  education.178  The  state 
treasurer,  who  is  also  the  treasurer  of  the  board,  is  authorized 
and  directed  to  keep  a  record  of  the  amount  of  money  appor- 
tioned to  and  received  by  the  different  counties  from  these 
sources ; 179  and  all  officers  having  moneys  which  by  law  belong  to 
such  funds  are  required  to  pay  the  same  to  the  said  treasurer.180 

Prior  to  1917  the  school  funds  of  each  of  the  counties  were 
entrusted  to  the  county  treasurer,  who  was  also  the  treasurer 
of  the  county  board  of  public  instruction.  But  in  1915  a  law 
was  passed  providing  for  abolishing  this  office  in  January,  1917, 
and  designating  the  banks  of  the  several  counties  as  depositories 
for  the  county  funds.181  To  qualify  as  a  depository  a  bank 
must  (i)  file  with  the  board  of  county  commissioners  or  the 
county  board  of  public  instruction,  or  both,  a  written  guarantee 
to  pay  the  same  two  per  cent  per  annum  on  all  daily  balances 
of  more  than  two  thousand  dollars,  and  four  per  cent  per  annum 
on  deposits  for  three  months  or  longer,  and  (2)  give  a  surety 
bond,  or  make  satisfactory  deposit  to  the  credit  of  the  county, 
in  an  amount  as  may  be  determined  by  the  boards,  to  be  approved 
by  the  state  comptroller,  and  conditioned  upon  the  safe-keeping, 
accounting  for,  and  paying  out  on  demand  by  proper  authority  all 
moneys  that  may  come  into  its  possession.  The  board  of  com- 
missioners and  the  school  board  are  required  to  divide  the  funds 
under  their  care  and  control  equally  among  the  banks  which 
have  met  these  conditions;  and  in  case  there  is  none,  among 
those  of  some  other  county.  All  persons  receiving  or  collecting 
any  money  payable  to  the  county  funds,  and  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for,  are  required  to  pay  the  same  to  the  bank  or  banks 
which  have  qualified  as  county  depositories.  Each  bank  acting 

177  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1918-20,  p.  124. 

178  See  Constitution  of   Florida,   Art.   XII,   Sec.   3;   and   Gen.   Stats- 
Sec.  336,  Para.  2 

179  See  Gen.  Stats.,  Sec.  319. 
™Ibid.,  Sec.  321. 

181  See  Laws  of  Florida,  1915,  Chap.  6932. 


252  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

as  a  depository  shall  receipt  in  triplicate  for  any  money  coming 
into  its  possession  — one  copy  to  be  kept  by  it,  one  to  be  given  the 
person,  and  one  the  board,  from  whom  the  money  has  been  re- 
ceived. It  shall  also  keep  two  separate  accounts  for  each  board — 
one  for  daily  balances  and  one  for  time  deposits.  The  boards 
must  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  amount  on  hand,  the  amount 
received,  the  amount  spent,  and  the  balance  at  the  end  of  each 
month  for  every  fund  carried  by  them,  and  never  draw  a  check 
or  warrant  in  excess  of  the  daily  balance  account.  All  moneys 
drawn  from  any  depository  must  be  upon  checks  or  warrants 
signed  by  the  chairman  of  the  board  issuing  the  same,  and  at- 
tested by  the  clerk  or  secretary  of  the  said  board  with  the  cor- 
porate seal  thereof  affixed.  Each  bank  is  directed  to  file  at  the 
end  of  every  month  with  the  board  or  boards  for  which  it  is 
a  depository  a  report  regarding  the  funds  placed  therein.  Each 
board  is  also  directed  to  prepare  and  publish  a  monthly  state- 
ment in  regard  to  the  funds  under  its  control.  And  finally,  all 
accounts,  both  of  the  banks  and  the  boards,  shall  at  all  times  be 
subject  to  the  inspection  and  examination  of  the  county  auditor, 
the  state  auditor,  and  the  state  comptroller,  or  persons  designated 
by  him. 


CHAPTER     XI 

RETROSPECTION  AND  FORECAST 
I.  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  RETROSPECT 

The  outline  of  the  present  public-school  system  which  has  just 
been  given,  together  with. the  account  of  the  growth  of  public 
education  in  the  preceding  chapters,  serves  to  show  how  far 
the  State  has  progressed  in  educational  ideals  and  practices,  and 
affords  many  reasons  for  encouragement.  Let  us  indulge  for 
a  while  in  retrospect,  and  notice  the  main  characteristics  of  its 
educational  experience. 

First  Attempts  at  Public  Education. — Prior  to  1845,  while 
Florida  was  still  a  territory,  there  were  several  efforts  toward 
public  education,  the  most  important  perhaps  being  the  enactment 
of  legislation  in  1839  looking  to  the  establishment  of  public 
schools.  However,  no  centralized  control  was  provided.  There 
was  also  practically  no  provision  for  their  support  other  than 
the  income  accruing  from  the  federal  land  grants,  and  in  most 
instances  this  was  "  shamefully  neglected  or  criminally  squan- 
dered "  by  those  authorized  and  directed  to  care  for  and  control 
the  same.  Consequently,  very  few  schools  were  established,  the 
principal  result  being  to  arouse  the  people  to  a  slight  appreciation 
at  least  of  the  value  of  public  education. 

Beginnings  of  the  Public-School  System. — During  the  period 
1845-60,  a  number  of  attempts  were  made  in  the  direction  of 
providing  a  system  of  schools  for  the  entire  State,  the  chief 
ones  being  as  follows:  the  creation  of  a  state  school-fund; 
the  authorization  of  a  county  school-tax,  the  maximum  amount 
levied  being  four  dollars  for  each  child  of  school  age;  the  pro- 
vision for  an  ex  officio  state  superintendent  of  schools,  also  an 
ex  officio  superintendent  and  board  of  education  for  each  county, 
and  for  three  trustees  in  each  school  district ;  the  establishment 
of  two  seminaries,  which  had  as  their  main  object  the  training 
of  teachers.  As  a  result,  considerable  progress  was  made,  es- 

253 


254  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

pecially  in  establishing  free  public  schools,  in  getting  the  children 
to  attend,  and  in  awakening  popular  interest  in  education.  Had 
it  not  been  for  the  Civil  War,  this  progress  would  doubtless 
have  continued.  As  it  was,  practically  all  public-school  efforts 
were  brought  to  an  end. 

Inauguration  of  the  Present  System. — The  present  educational 
system  of  Florida  was  inaugurated  under  the  constitution  of 
1868  and  the  school  law  of  1869,  the  principal  provisions  of 
which  being  the  following:  the  creation  of  a  permanent  state 
school-fund;  the  provision  for  an  annual  state  school-tax  of 
one  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property;  the  requirement 
that  each  county  should  raise  for  the  support  of  schools  not  less 
than  half  the  amount  apportioned  to  it  from  the  state  school- 
fund;  the  appointment,  by  the  governor,  of  a  state  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction;  the  provision  for  a  state  board 
of  education,  consisting  of  the  superintendent,  secretary  of  state, 
and  attorney  general;  the  appointment,  by  the  governor  and  the 
state  board  of  education,  respectively,  of  a  superintendent  and 
board  of  public  instruction  for  each  of  the  counties;  the  appoint- 
ment, by  the  different  county  boards,  of  not  more  than  five  trus- 
tees for  each  school  district;  the  examination  of  teachers  by 
the  county  boards  of  public  instruction,  the  certification  of  them 
by  the  county  boards  and  the  state  superintendent,  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  same  by  the  county  boards  on  the  approval  of 
the  local  trustees ;  the  requirement  that  negro  children  should  be 
given  educational  advantages  equal  to  those  of  the  white,  and 
that  every  county  should  maintain  a  school  or  schools  for  not 
less  than  three  months  in  each  year  in  order  to  receive  its  part 
of  the  state  revenue  for  the  support  of  free  public  schools. 

Progress  of  the  System,  1868-84. — Considering  the  inimical 
conditions  under  which  the  present  public-school  system  was 
created,  the  chief  ones  being  the  apathy  and  poverty  of  the 
people  and  the  lack  of  competent  teachers  and  suitable  school 
plants,  the  progress  thereof  from  the  very  first  was  rather  en- 
couraging. By  1884  all  the  educational  hindrances  had  been 
partially  overcome;  a  county  school-tax  ranging  from  two  and 
one-half  to  four  mills  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property  had 
been  required  by  law;  a  few  high  schools  and  1,504  common 
schools  had  been  established;  the  average  length  of  the  school 


RETROSPECTION  AND  FORECAST         255 

term  had  been  increased  to  82  days,  and  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance to  about  43  per  cent  of  the  school  population;  county 
teachers'  institutes  of  one  or  more  days  in  length,  teacher- 
training  courses  in  most  of  the  secondary  and  some  of  the 
best  elementary  schools,  a  normal  department  in  both  the  sem- 
inaries, and  a  colored  normal  school  of  one  month's  duration 
had  been  organized;  a  state  college,  and  also  a  school  for  the 
blind  and  deaf-mutes,  had  been  inaugurated.  In  other  words, 
Florida  had  laid  the  foundation  at  least  for  a  real  system  of 
universal  education. 

Reorganisation  and  Advancement,  1884-^2. — During  the  years 
from  1884  to  1892,  inclusive,  there  were  several  changes  in  the 
public-school  system,  the  chief  of  which  being  as  follows :  the 
addition  of  the  governor  and  state  treasurer  to  the  state  board 
of  education;  the  election  of  the  state  and  county  superinten- 
dents of  public  instruction  by  the  qualified  voters ;  the  reduction 
in  the  number  of  members  in  the  several  county  boards  of  edu- 
cation, the  limit  being  reduced  from  five  to  three ;  the  adoption 
of  the  county  unit  of  organization  for  the  administration  of 
schools;  the  appointment,  by  the  various  county  boards,  of  one 
supervisor  for  each  school  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  local 
school-board  of  five  members;  the  provision  for  special-tax 
school  districts,  and  for  the  election  of  three  school  trustees  for 
each  district;  the  authorization  of  a  district  school-tax  of  three 
mills,  and  also  the  requirement  of  a  county  school-tax  of  from 
three  to  five  mills,  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property;  the 
requirement  that  the  county  boards  of  education  should  prepare 
the  elementary  courses  of  study  in  their  respective  counties;  the 
delegation  to  them  of  the  sole  authority  in  the  appointment  of 
teachers;  and  the  provision  for  county  high  schools  and  two 
state  normals. 

During  this  period  there  was  also  considerable  advancement 
in  public  education.  For  example,  the  annual  free-school  ex- 
penditure was  nearly  doubled,  this  increase  being  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  total  population  or  the  wealth  of  the  State;  a 
few  additional  high  schools  and  270  common  schools  were  in- 
stituted; the  average  length  of  the  school  term  was  increased 
to  approximately  100  days,  and  the  average  daily  attendance  to 


256  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

about  46  per  cent  of  the  school  population;  better  and  more 
adequate  school  plants  were  provided,  the  total  value  of  the 
school  property  being  increased  more  than  150  per  cent;  more 
suitable  curricula  were  offered ;  a  larger  and  more  efficient  teach- 
ing force  was  secured;  two  state  normals — one  for  white  and 
one  for  negro  students — >were  inaugurated;  and  the  four  state 
educational  institutions  already  established  —  the  two  seminaries, 
the  state  college,  and  the  school  for  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes  — 
were  considerably  improved. 

The  Educational  Awakening,  1892-1921. — But  since  1892  there 
have  been  some  very  important  changes  in  the  school  system  of  the 
State,  the  principal  ones  being:  the  appointment,  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  of  a  state  board  of  examiners,  which  has 
almost  complete  control  in  the  matter  of  examining  and  certifi- 
cating teachers ;  the  election  of  the  county  school-board  members 
by  popular  vote;  the  fixing  of  the  maximum  county  school-tax 
at  ten  instead  of  seven  mills  on  the  dollar;  the  authorization 
of  an  additional  district  school-tax  of  five  mills  on  the  dollar 
whenever  bonds  have  been  issued  for  the  exclusive  use  of  pub- 
lic schools;  the  apportionment  of  the  state  free-school  revenue 
to  the  different  counties  on  the  school-attendance  rather  than 
the  school-population  basis ;  the  provision  of  compulsory  school- 
attendance  for  all  children  of  the  State  between  seven  and  six- 
teen years  of  age;  the  adoption  of  uniform  textbooks  for  the 
elementary  and  high  schools;  the  furnishing  of  free  textbooks, 
by  the  county  boards  of  education,  to  indigent  children  of  their 
respective  counties;  the  adoption  of  the  uniform  elementary- 
and  high-school  courses  of  study  formulated  by  the  state  de- 
partment of  education;  the  provision  for  medical  inspection  of 
school  children ;  the  providing  of  better  facilities  for  the  training 
of  teachers;  the  inauguration  of  state  elementary-  and  high- 
school  supervision;  the  promotion  of  the  teaching  of  vocational 
education;  the  provision  for  two  state  reform  schools  —  one 
for  boys  and  one  for  girls;  the  authorization  of  the  county 
boards  to  establish  and  maintain  kindergartens;  the  merging 
of  all  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  into  two,  —  one  for 
men  and  one  for  women  —  and  placing  them  under  the  direction 
of  a  state  board  of  five  members. 


RETROSPECTION  AND  FORECAST         257 

Since  then  there  has  also  taken  place  a  remarkably  rapid  ad- 
vance along  all  educational  lines.  More  efficient  school  officers 
and  teachers  have  been  secured;  the  annual  free-school  expen- 
diture has  been  increased  1,192  per  cent,  this  increase  being 
more  than  ten  times  as  fast  as  that  of  the  school  population; 
the  number  of  common  schools  has  been  considerably  augmented, 
and  one  or  more  good  high  schools  have  been  established  in 
every  county;  the  average  length  of  the  school  term  has  been 
increased  to  133  days;  more  suitable  school  plants  have  been 
provided;  the  elementary-  and  high-school  curricula  have  been 
made  much  broader  and  richer;  and  all  the  state  educational 
institutions  —  the  school  for  the  blind  and  deaf-mutes,  the  two 
reform  schools,  and  the  three  institutions  of  higher  learning  — 
have  been  greatly  improved. 

Some  Results  Actually  Achieved  since  1877. — As  pointed  out, 
there  has  been  a  constant  progress  in  public  education  ever  since 
the  inauguration  of  the  present  system.  However,  since  1877  — 
the  year  following  the  close  of  the  reconstruction  government 
in  Florida  —  this  progress  has  been  quite  marked.  The  six 
sets  of  figures  given  in  Table  XXVIII,  below,  reveal  in  a  con- 
vincing manner  some  of  the  achievements. 

II.  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  PROSPECT 

For  this  rapid  progress  in  public  education,  especially  during 
the  last  two  decades,  the  Floridians  may  well  congratulate  them- 
selves, and  from  it  gather  courage.  However,  they  should  not 
fail  to  take  cognizance  of  the  fact  that  there  are  still  many 
hard,  though  glorious,  educational  tasks  which  lie  before  them, 
a  few  of  which  we  shall  notice. 

Some  Unfinished  Tasks. — In  1917-18  —  the  latest  year  for 
which  statistics  of  the  various  state  school  systems  are  available 
—  the  per  cent  of  the  children  in  the  United  States  from  5  to 
18  years  of  age  enrolled  in  public  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  was  75.3,  while  in  Florida  it  was  72.9;  the  per  cent  in 
daily  attendance  was  56.2  and  50.9,  respectively ;  the  number 
attending  daily  for  each  100  enrolled,  74.6  and  69.9;  the  average 
number  of  days  the  schools  were  in  session,  160.7  and  130; 
the  average  number  of  days  attended  by  each  child  from  5  to 
1 8  years  of  age,  90.2  and  66.2 ;  the  average  number  of  days 
attended  by  each  child  enrolled,  119.8  and  90.9;  the  per  cent 


258 


PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 


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RETROSPECTION  AND  FORECAST  259 

of  the  total  school  enrollment  in  secondary  schools,  9.3  and  5.4; 
the  per  cent  of  rural-school  buildings  having  only  one  room, 
76  and  80;  the  value  of  all  school  property  for  each  pupil  en- 
rolled, $95.12  and  $54.06;  the  average  expenditure,  for  current 
expenses,  per  pupil  enrolled,  $30.91  and  $18.82;  the  average 
expenditure,  for  current  expenses,  per  pupil  attending  daily, 
$41.45  and  $26.93;  and  the  average  annual  salary  for  teachers, 
$635  and  $383.2 

The  figures  for  that  year  also  show  that  there  were  32  states 
with  a  larger  per  cent  of  the  children  between  5  and  18  years  old 
enrolled  in  public  elementary  and  secondary  schools  than  Florida 
had;  35  with  a  larger  per  cent  of  them  in  daily  attendance; 
31  with  a  larger  number  attending  daily  for  each  100  enrolled ; 
43  with  a  longer  school  term;  42  with  a  larger  average  number 
of  days  attended  by  each  child  between  5  and  18  years  old;  41 
with  a  larger  average  number  of  days  attended  by  each  child 
enrolled;  37  with  a  larger  per  cent  of  the  total  school  enroll- 
ment in  secondary  schools;  27  with  a  smaller  per  cent  of  one- 
room  rural  school  buildings ;  35  with  a  larger  amount  of  money 
invested  in  school  property  for  each  pupil  enrolled;  35  with 
a  larger  average  expenditure,  for  current  expenses,  per  pupil 
enrolled;  35  with  a  larger  average  expenditure,  for  current  ex- 
penses, per  pupil  attending  daily;  and  40  with  a  larger  average 
annual  salary  for  teachers.3 

Furthermore,  during  that  year,  the  number  of  public  free 
schools  in  Florida  for  negro  children  was  only  837,  or  less  than 
30  per  cent  of  the  total  number,4  though  the  negro  children  of 
school  age5  constituted  nearly  40  per  cent  of  the  total  school 
population.  The  per  cent  of  the  negro  school  population  enrolled 
in  the  public  elementary  and  secondary  schools  was  only  50; 
and  the  per  cent  in  daily  attendance,  35.  The  average  length 
of  the  school  term  was  but  102  days ;  the  average  number  of  days 
attended  by  each  negro  child  of  school  age,  35.7;  and  the  average 
number  of  days  attended  by  each  100  enrolled,  71.4.  The  number 

2  For  the  figures   of  this  paragraph   see  Bull,   of  U.   S.   Bu.   of   Ed., 
1920,  No.  n,  pp.  8,  10,  14,  42,  46,  47,  67,  69,  and  108. 

3  For  the  figures  of  this  paragraph  see  Bull,  of  U.  S.  Bu.  of  Ed., 
1920,  No.  n,  pp.  8,  10,  14,  42,  46,  47,  67,  69,  and  108. 

4There  were  but  4  negro  high  schools,  the  total  enrollment  of  which 
was  only  226  (see  Rep.  of  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.,  1917,  II,  613). 
5  From  6  to  21  years. 


260  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

of  negro  teachers  employed  was  but  1,288,  or  about  one-fifth  of 
the  total  number;  and  nearly  one-half  of  these  held  only  third- 
class  certificates,  representing  preparation  less  than  that  usually 
given  in  the  eighth  grade.  The  value  of  the  negro  school  property 
was  only  $725,457,  or  less  than  7  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  The 
amount  spent  for  negro  education  was  but  $443,600,  this  being 
about  5  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure,  and  but  $3.59  for  each 
negro  child  of  school  age.  And  finally,  the  average  annual  salary 
for  negro  teachers  was  only  about  $i8i.6 

As  is  patent  from  the  three  foregoing  paragraphs,  there  is  yet 
much  to  be  done  before  it  can  be  said  that  Florida  has  one  of 
the  best  public-school  systems  in  the  United  States.7  The  facts 
stated  therein  show  that  there  are  indeed  some  grave  educational 
tasks  confronting  the  people  of  the  State. 

A  Promising  Future. — But  in  spite  of  its  many  shortcomings, 
public  education  in  Florida  has,  as  Dr.  W.  N.  Sheats  has  said,8 
"  a  most  gratifying  outlook."  In  fact,  there  is  probably  no  depart- 
ment of  historical  life  that  is  capable  of  giving  the  people  as  great 
encouragement  to  take  a  hopeful  view  of  the  future  as  the  history 
of  their  public-school  system.  A  backward  glance  over  the  way 
along  which  public  education  has  come  reveals  three  progressive 
features  that  have  been  more  or  less  prominent  from  the  be- 
ginning: first,  the  extension  of  centralized  control;  second,  the 
humanization  of  the  curricula;  and  third,  the  expansion  of  the 
public-school  system  in  ever-widening  circles  of  the  population. 
Judging  from  these  and  other  evidences  of  advance,  particularly 
during  the  last  few  years,  and  also  from  the  increase  in  the 
school  funds,  the  recent  growth  of  popular  interest  in  the  schools, 
and  the  progressive  educational  legislation  recently  enacted,  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  a  new  era  of  educational  pros- 
perity has  dawned,  and  that  within  the  next  quarter  of  a  century 
or  less  Florida  will  rank  among  the  leading  states  of  the  Union 
in  matters  of  public  education. 

6  The  figures  of  this  paragraph  are  found  in  tables  xiii,  xiv,  xvii,  xviii, 
xxv,  and  xxvi,  on  pages  113,  116,  173,  180,  197,  and  199,  above,  or  com- 
puted from  the  figures  found  therein. 

7  In  1917-18  three-fourths  of  the  states,  according  to  an  investigation 
by  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  had  a  more  efficient  public-school  system  (see 
his  An  Index  Number  for  State  School  Systems,  p.  49). 

8  See  Bien.  Rep.  of  Supt.  of  Pub.  Ins.,  1916-18,  p.  18. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES 

I.  PRIMARY  SOURCES 

Beard,  John.  Annual  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands 
and  State  Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  in  House  Jour- 
nal, 1850-51,  appendix,  rT.  51;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appen- 
dix, p.  12. 

Bonner,  H.  R.  Statistics  of  State  School  Systems,  1917-18. 
Bulletin,  1920,  No.  n,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation. . 

Bush,  Allen  H.  A  Digest  of  the  Statute  Law  of  Florida.  Tal- 
lahassee, Charles  H.  Walton,  State  Printer,  1872. 

Catalogues  of  the  State  Educational  Institutions,  1905  to  date. 

Constitutions  of  the  State  of  Florida,  1845,  J86i,  1865,  and  1885. 

Corley,  Hugh  H.  State  Register's  Report,  1860,  in  Senate  Jour- 
nal, 1860-61,  appendix,  pp.  9-12. 

Corley,  Hugh  H.  State  Register's  Report,  1865,  in  House  Jour- 
nal, 1865-66,  appendix,  p.  8;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appen- 
dix, p.  8. 

Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  and  High  Schools  of  Florida 
(rearranged  edition;  authorized  by  Chap.  7910,  Acts  of 
1919).  Tallahassee,  Department  of  Education,  1919. 

Directory  of  Florida  School  Officers,  High  Schools  and  Other 
Educational  Institutions,  /p/p.  Tallahassee,  T.  J.  Appleyard, 
Printer. 

Duncan,  E.  B.  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Common 
Schools  for  Freedmen,  1866,  in  Senate  Journal,  1865-66, 
appendix. 

Duval,  John  P.  Compilation  of  the  Public  Acts  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council  of  the  Territory  of  Florida  prior  to  1840.  Tal- 
lahassee, Samuel  B.  Sibley,  Printer,  1839. 

General  Statutes  of  the  State  of  Florida  (prepared  under  author- 
ity of,  and  adopted  by,  the  legislature),  pp.  257-89.  St. 
Augustine,  The  Record  Company,  1906. 

261 


262  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Holloway,  State  Superintendent  W.  M.  Digest  of  the  School 
Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida  with  the  Forms,  Regulations, 
and  Instructions  of  the  Department  of  Education.  Tallahas- 
see, T.  J.  Appleyard,  State  Printer,  1911. 

Hood,  William  R.,  Weeks,  S.  B.,  and  Ford,  A.  S.  Digest  of 
State  Laws  Relating  to  Public  Education.  Bulletin,  1915, 
No.  47,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

House  and  Senate  Journals,  1832  to  date. 

Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Constitutional  Convention 
of  the  State  of  Florida,  1868.  Tallahassee,  Edward  M.  Che- 
ney, Printer,  1868. 

Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  of 
the  State  of  Florida,  1885.  Tallahassee,  N.  M.  Bowen,  State 
Printer,  1885. 

Laws  Relating  to  Common  Schools  in  the  State  of  Florida 
(printed  by  order  of  the  general  assembly).  Tallahassee, 
Dyke  and  Carlisle,  1860. 

McClellan,  James  F.  A  Digest  of  the  Laws  of  the  State  of 
Florida,  1822-81.  Tallahassee,  The  Floridian  Book  and  Job 
Office,  1881. 

Messages  of  the  Governor,  1832  to  date,  in  House  and  Senate 
Journals. 

Regulations  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1889  to 
date. 

Reports  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1869 
to  date. 

Reports  of  the  State  Treasurer,  1845  to  date. 

Reports  of  the  State  High-School  Inspector,  1910  to  date. 

Report  of  the  Commission  on  Accredited  Schools  of  the  Associ- 
ation of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  of  the  Southern 
State,  in  The  High  School  Quarterly  (Athens,  Georgia), 
April,  1919. 

Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1870 
to  date. 

Reports  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  1917 
to  date. 

Session  Laws,  1828  to  date. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES  263 

Sheats,  State  Superintendent  W.  N.  Digest  of  the  School  Laws 
of  the  State  of  Florida  with  the  Regulations  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  and  the  Instructions  and  Forms  of  the 
Department  of  Education.  Tallahassee,  T.  J.  Appleyard,  State 
Printer,  1915. 

Sheats,  State  Superintendent  W.  N.  A  Compilation  of  the  Laws 
Relating  to  Education  Enacted  by  the  Florida  Legislature  of 
1917  and  1919. 

Standard  Course  of  Study  for  the  Public  High  Schools  of  Flor- 
ida, with  an  Advisory  Course  of  Study  for  Rural  Schools 
(a  pamphlet  prepared  by  the  high- school  commission  provided 
for  in  laws  of  Florida,  1903,  Chap.  5206,  Sec.  8). 

States  Regulations  Service  Document  40  (Revised  January  I, 
1919).  Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1919. 

Thompson,  Leslie  A.  A  Manual  or  Digest  of  the  Statute  Law 
of  Florida,  of  a  General  and  Public  Character  (digested  and 
arranged  under  and  in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  the  general 
assembly,  approved  December  10,  1845).  Boston,  Charles  C. 
Little  and  James  Brown,  1847. 

Thorpe,  Francis  Newton.  The  Federal  and  State  Constitutions, 
Colonial  Charters,  and  Other  Organic  Laws  (compiled  and 
edited  under  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906),  II,  664-85. 
Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1909. 

United  States  Census  Reports,  1840-1910. 

United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  III,  654  and  756;  IV,  201-02; 
V,  550  and  742;  XXIV,  440;  XXVI,  417;  XXXIV,  1281 ;  and 
XXXVIII,  372. 

Walker,  David  S.  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands  and 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  1852,  in  House  Journal, 
1852-53,  appendix,  pp.  111-17;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appen- 
dix, pp.  111-17. 

Walker,  David  S.  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands  and 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  1854,  in  House  Journal, 
1854-55,  appendix,  pp.  6-8;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appendix, 
pp.  6-8. 

Walker,  David  S.  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands  and 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  1856,  in  House  Journal, 
1856-57,  appendix,  pp.  12-13;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appen- 
dix, pp.  12-13. 


264  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  EDUCATION  IN  FLORIDA 

Walker,  David  S.  Report  of  the  Register  of  Public  Lands  and 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools,  1858,  in  House  Journal, 
1858-59,  appendix,  pp.  14-18;  also  in  Senate  Journal,  appen- 
dix, pp.  14-18. 

II.  SECONDARY  SOURCES 

American  Annals  of  Education  and  Instruction  (published  by 
Allen  and  Ticknor,  Boston,  I,  225  and  328;  also  II,  94-^96 
and  239. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  An  Index  Number  for  State  School  Systems. 
New  York,  The  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1920. 

Barnard,  Henry.  American  Journal  of  Education,  XVI,  381 ; 
XVII,  112-13;  XIX,  336-39;  XXIV,  158,  164,  240,  249, 
and  715;  XXVII,  335;  XXIX,  36-37. 

Blackmar,  Frank  W.  The  History  of  Federal  and  State  Aid 
to  Higher  Education  in  the  United  States.  Circular  of  in- 
formation, No.  i,  1890,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation. 

Bowker,  Richard  Rogers.  The  Library  List  (being  a  list  of 
public  libraries  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  of  over 
1,000  volumes,  with  classification  by  size  and  name  of  libra- 
rian). New  York,  Office  of  the  Library  Journal,  1887. 

Brevard,  Caroline  Mays,  and  Bennett,  H.  E.  A  History  of 
Florida,  with  Questions,  Supplementary  Chapters,  and  an 
Outline  of  Florida  Civil  Government,  pp.  226-31  and  252-54. 
New  York,  American  Book  Company,  1919. 

Bush,  George  Cary.  History  of  Education  in  Florida.  Circular 
of  Information,  No.  7,  1888,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education. 

Capen,  Samuel  P.  Accredited  Secondary  Schools  in  the  United 
States.  Bulletin,  1916,  No.  20,  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education. 

Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.  "State  of  Florida,"  in  Monroe's  Cy- 
clopaedia of  Education,  II,  620-23.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1911-13. 

Dexter,  Edwin  Grant.  A  History  of  Education  in  the  United 
States,  pp.  96  and  138-39.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1914. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES  265 

Donaldson,  Thomas  Corwin.  The  Public  Domain;  Its  History, 
with  Statistics  to  June  30  and  December  I,  1883  (prepared 
in  pursuance  of  the  acts  of  Congress  of  March  3,  1879, 
June  16,  1880,  and  August  7,  1882),  Chap,  XIII.  Washing- 
ton, Government  Printing  Office,  1884. 

Green,  Edwin  L.  School  History  of  Florida,  pp.  279-80,  321, 
and  331-32.  Baltimore,  Williams  and  Wilkins  Company, 
1898. 

Mayo,  A.  D.  "  The  American  Common  School  in  the  Southern 
States  during  the  first  Half  Century  of  the  Republic,  1790- 
1840,"  in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 1895-96,  Vol.  I. 

Mayo,  A.  D.  "  Original  Establishment  of  State  School  Funds," 
in  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1894-95,  Vol.  II. 

Mayo,  A.  D.  "  The  Organization  and  Development  of  the 
American  Common  School  in  the  Atlantic  and  Central  States 
of  the  South,  1830-1860,"  in  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  1899-1900,  Vol.  I. 

Mayo,  A.  D.  "Common  School  Education  in  the  South  from 
Beginning  of  Civil  War  to  1876,"  in  Report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1900-1901,  Vol.  I. 

Rerick,  Rowland  H.  Memoirs  of  Florida,  Vol.  I.  Atlanta,  The 
Southern  Historical  Association,  1902. 

Sheats,  State  Superintendent  W.  N.  History  of  the  Origin  and 
Growth  of  Public  Schools  in  Florida,  in  Biennial  Report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1892-94,  pp.  5-63. 

Swift,  Fletcher  Harper.  A  History  of  Public  Permanent  Com- 
mon School  Funds  in  the  United  States,  1795-1905.  New 
York,  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  1911. 


INDEX 


Academies,  early,  12-13;  statistics 
(1840,  1850,  1860),  27.  See  Pri- 
vate schools. 

Administration  of  schools,  24-26,  63, 

65,  9O-92,   2IO-II. 

Administrative  control  and  supervi- 
sion, general,  at  present,  213-24. 

Administrative  unit,  63,  92,  221. 

Age  limits,  224. 

Agricultural  education,  106,  107, 
147-48,  164, 

Agricultural  experiment  station,  157, 
164. 

American  Annals  of  Education  and 
Instruction,  2,  3,  4. 

American  Journal  of  Education,  29 
note,  30  note,  31  note. 

Attendance,  school,  number,  27,  77, 
108,  ii2,  113,  258;  place,  226. 

Apportionment  of  school  funds.  See 
School  funds,  apportionment. 

Bartoff,  John  R,  67. 

Beard,  John,  18,  22. 

Beecher,  Charles,  49,  56,  69,  77. 

Benevolent  associations,  work  of,  29, 
33,  50,  51,  54- 

Bennett,  H.  E.,  126,  181. 

Bibliography.  See  References,  list 
of. 

Blind  and  deaf-mutes,  school  for, 
104-06,  149-50,  238. 

Blount,  W.  A.,  126. 

Bloxham,  Governor,  88  note,  104. 

Board  of  commissioners  of  state  in- 
stitutions, 176,  241. 

Bonds  and  indebtedness,  local, 
250-51. 

Buckman  Act,  162,  182. 

Buildings,  grounds,  and  equipment, 
65-67,  92-94,  170-72,  239-41. 

Caldwell,  William,  105. 
Call,  Governor,  7. 
Cater,  Edwin  P.,  97,  154. 
Cawthon,  W.  S.,  195  note. 
Census,  school,  6o-^5i,  211,  224-25. 
Chase,  C.  Thurston,  29,  46,  47,  49, 
50,  51,  53,  56,  69. 


Civil  War,  public  education  during, 
28. 

Commercial  education,  140-41. 

Commission  for  preparation  of  state 
curriculum,  118. 

Compton,  John  C.,  170. 

Compulsory  attendance,  112,  114, 
227-29. 

Conference  of  county  superintend- 
ents and  other  school  officers 
state,  38,  92,  112,  126,  214. 

Consolidation  of  schools,  229. 

Consolidation  of  special-tax  school- 
districts,  222-23. 

Constitution  of  1845,  educational 
provisions,  15-16;  of  1868,  34-36, 
47-48;  of  1885,  79-84,  109. 

Corley,  Hugh  H.,  27. 

County  boards  of  public  instruction, 
20,  33,  39-40,  48,  52,  61,  63,  85, 

91-92,  2IO-II,  2IO-2I. 

County  superintendents  of  public  in- 
struction, 17,  20-21,  32,  40,  48,  52, 
59,  62-63,  82^83,  92,  211,  218-19. 

Courses  of  study,  67-69,  94-95, 
115-21,  122,  123-31,  230-37. 

Crenshaw,  A.,  67,  71. 

Cushman,  Miss  Lucy  C.,  216  note. 

Daily  Herald,  83. 
Davis,  Miss  Lumie  B.,  151  note. 
Day,  school,  meaning  of,  227. 
DeLand,  H.  A.,  101  note. 
Denominational  schools,   loo-ioi. 
Districts,    school.     See   School   dis- 
tricts. 
Drew,  Governor,  59,  63. 

Eagan,  Superintendent,  71. 

East  Florida  Seminary,  51,  74-75, 
97,  102,  153-54,  158. 

Eaton,  John,  46. 

Education  in  other  states,  influence 
of,  209-10. 

Education  in  the  Territory,  condition 
of,  3- 

Educational  administration  and  su- 
pervision, improvement  in,  influ- 
ence of,  210-11. 


266 


INDEX 


267 


Educational  campaigns,  112,  114. 

Educational  legislation,  early,  5-9; 
first,  for  establishment  of  schools 
(1839),  8;  of  1849,  16-18;  of  1853, 
19-22;  of  1869,  36-46;  of  1889, 
84-88,  109-10;  a  factor  in  the 
public-school  awakening,  205-06. 

Educational  organization,  under  con- 
stitution of  1868,  35-36;  under 
school  law  of  1869,  37-41;  (1868- 
84),  58-63;  under  school  law  of 
1889,  84-88;  (1884-92),  90-91. 

Educational  progress,  evidences  of 
(1868-84),  76-78. 

Educational  status  of  pupils  (1892- 
1920),  113;  (1877-1920),  258. 

Emerson,  J.  C,  66. 

Enrollment,  school,  12  note,  27,  77, 
1 08,  112,  113,  124,  258. 

Environment  and  equipment  of 
schools,  under  school  law  of  1869, 
41-42. 

Expenditures,  school,  56,  89,  124,  198, 
199,  258. 

Farm-demonstration  agents,   148. 

Federal  aid,  i,  5,  9  note,  16,  50,  54, 
55,  152,  153,  156,  158  note,  208. 

Felkel,  Henry  N.,  71,  97,  105. 

Five  percent  fund,  18. 

Florida  Agricultural  College,  98-99, 
155-58,  159-61. 

Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  for  Negroes,  167-^68,  194 
note. 

Florida  Association  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  the  Education  of  the  Deaf 
and  Blind,  106. 

Florida  Conference  College,  101 
note. 

Florida  Education  Society,  1-2,  4. 

Florida  Industrial  School  for  Boys, 
150-51. 

Florida  Industrial  School  for  Girls, 
151- 

Florida  Normal  and  Business  Insti- 
tute, 101. 

Florida  State  College  for  Women, 
165-67,  182,  194. 

Florida  University,  157. 

Foster,  Eleazar  K.,  49,  56,  61,  67, 
69,  76,  104. 

Franklin  County  School,  12. 

Freedmen's  Bureau,  30,  55. 

Free  textbooks,  178-79,  242. 

Future,  promising,  260. 

General  Education  Board,  163  note, 
194-95,  208. 


Gibbs,  Jonathan  C.,  49,  56,  67. 
Graham,  John  A.,  97. 
Graves,  John  Temple,  83. 
Gray,  Charles  H.,  177. 
Guilliams,  J.  M.,  100  note. 
Guisinger,  Jos.  E.,  182. 

Haisley,  William  P.,  49,  56,  61,  62, 
68,  74,  75- 

Halliday,  S.  F.,  66,  71. 

Holloway,  W.  M.,  212. 

Hatch  Act,  157,  208  note. 

Haynie,  E.  A.,  216  note. 

Health  conditions,   172,   174-75,  241. 

Higher  and  professional  education 
before  1892,  152-58;  (1892-1905), 
158-62;  since  1905,  162-68,  239. 

High-school   commission,   126-27. 

High  schools,  102-04,  121-39;  classi- 
fication, 132  note ;  courses  of  study, 
123,  125-31;  enrollment,  124;  ex- 
penditures, 124;  number,  122,  123, 
124;  on  Florida  accredited  list, 
131-35;  on  Southern  accredited 
list,  135-39;  value,  122,  123,  124. 
See  Secondary  education. 

Hindrances  to  universal  education 
(1868-84),  53-7.6. 

Home-demonstration  agents,  144. 

Home-economics  work,  106-08,  140, 
143-47,  166. 

Holidays,  school,  227. 

Home,  W.  T.,  177. 

Industrial     education,     107-08,     140, 

141-43,  164,   165. 
Inspectors,  school,  state,  194-96,  217- 

18. 
Isler,  H.  H,  177. 

Jasper  Normal  Institute,  100  note. 
Journals,  educational,  196. 

Kindergartens,   151-52,  23^-39. 
Kost,  John,  157  note. 

Laws,  school.  See  Educational  leg- 
islation. 

Leadership,  educational,  a  factor  in 
the  public-school  awakening,  211- 
12. 

Lynch,  George  M.,  195. 

McClane,  Frank  E.,  151  note. 
McDonald,  Miss  Christian,  195  note. 
McLin,    Samuel   B.,  49,   56,   62,  64, 

70-71,  73,  76. 
Manual-labor  school,  Tallahassee,  3- 

5- 


268 


INDEX 


Mayo,  A.  D.,  13. 

Military  training,  237. 

Monroe  County  School,  12. 

Month,  school,  meaning  of,  227. 

Moore,  Marshall,  177. 

Morrill    Fund,    aid    from,    156,    158 

note,  208. 

Moseley,  Governor,  n,  16 
Murphree,  A.  A.,  163. 

Nashville  University,  74,  97. 
Negro   education,    before    1865,   29; 

legal  provision  for,  in  1866,  29-305 

schools,  30-31;  statistics  of  (1865- 

68),  31. 
Normal  schools,   75,  81,  97-98,  99- 

100,  158,  181. 

Officers,  school,  present,  213. 
Orange  College,  101  note. 
Organization,  educational.    See  Edu- 
cational legislation. 

Part-time  schools,  239. 

Peabody  Educational  Fund,  55,  73, 

74,  97,  193  note,  209. 
Perry,  Governor,  88  note 
Philips,  Shelton,  195  note,  216  note. 
Popular  interest  in  education,  26-27, 

57,  oq,  203-05. 
Population,    school,    23-24,    27,    77, 

108,  113. 

Population,  total,  72,  108,  202. 
Population,  white  (1850),  22  note 
Price,  T.  W.,  171. 
Private  appropriations,  30,  50,  52,  54, 

104,  153,  154,  163  note,  208. 
Private    schools,    51,    100-102.      See 

Academies ;    also    Denominational 

schools. 

Property,  assessed  value  of,  90,  202. 
Property,    school,  value  of,   68,   93, 

122,  123,  124,  173. 
Prospect,  257-60. 
Public   education,   first  attempts  at, 

1-14,    253;    gains    to     (1822-45), 

11-13;  in  1868,  49-50. 
Public  school,  rise  of,  1-33. 
Public     Schools,     classification     of, 

220-30;   number   of,    12  note,   27, 

68,  93,  116,  123,  124,  131,  139,  258. 
Public-school      awakening       ( 1892- 

1921),  in-201,  256-57;  some  fac- 
tors favoring,  202-12. 
Public-school  system,  beginning  of, 

15-33,  253-54;    icsults   of    (1845- 

68),   22-28;    work   of    (1868^84), 


40-78,  254-55;  progress  of  (1884- 
92),  70-110,  255-56;  results  since 
1877,  257,  258. 

Public-school  system,  present,  estab- 
lishment of,  34-48,  254;  extent  of, 
229;  outline  of,  213-52. 

Quigley,  T.  H.,  216  note. 

Reed,  Governor,  29,  36. 
References,  list  of,  261-65. 
Reform  schools,  150-51,  238. 
Retrospect,  253-60. 
Revival,    educational,    under    Chase 

(1868-70),  50-53- 
Rollins  College,  101  note. 
Russell,  Albert  J.,  49,  56,  76,  84,  88, 

93,  97,  105,  107,  108,  109. 

St.  Johns  Conference  College,  101 
note. 

St.  Johns  and  Mosquito  counties, 
educational  status  of,  2-3. 

St.  Johns  and  Mosquito  County 
Society,  2. 

St.  Petersburg  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial School,  140,  141,  144,  161-62, 
182. 

School-attendance  officers,  223-24, 
225,  228. 

School  districts,  81,  82;  special,  86, 
222. 

School-fund,  county,  80,  228  note. 

School-fund,  state,  amount,  56,  89; 
composition,  18,  19,  32,  34-35,  54, 
80;  first  established  (1848)^  16; 
income,  19,  24-25,  52 ;  provision 
for  investing,  18-19,  32,  79^  251 ; 
spent  during  Civil  War,  50. 

School  funds,  apportionment  of,  17,   » 
18,  19,  20,  35,  36,  38,  45,  80,  200, 
214,  249-50;  present  sources,  248- 
49;  provision  for  safe-keeping,  37, 
39,  80,  251-52. 

S  c  h  o  o  1-improvement  associations, 
114. 

School  laws.  See  Educational  legis- 
lation. 

School  records  and  reports,  county, 
59,  92. 

School  statistics  (1840,  1850,  and 
1860),  27;  (1869-84),  56,  59,  60, 
68,  775  (1884-92),  89,  91,  93,  96, 
108;  (1892-1920),  113,  116,  124, 
138,  173,  180,  185,  187.  188,  196, 
197,  199,  204;  (1877-1920),  258. 


INDEX 


269 


School  supervision,  county,  211; 
local,  85-87,  211,  221,  223;  state, 
163,  194-96,  218. 

School  system,  legal  organization  of, 
in  1845,  io-ii. 

School  taxation,  county,  19,  25,  26, 
32,  35,  36,  52,  5<>-58,  80,  81,  87,  90, 
198,  200,  203-05,  248;  district,  81, 
82,  87,  198,  204,  248-49;  state,  35, 


36,  39-40,  80.  81,  248. 
cho 


School  term,  length  of,  77,  108,  113, 

197,   226,   258;    meaning   of,   227; 

time  of,  226. 
School  treasurer,  county,  61-62,  86; 

local,  8;  state,  37,  85,  214.  * 
School  trustees,  local,  8-9,  10,  14,  16, 

20,  21  note,  32,  41,  81,  82,  86-87, 

223. 
Secondary   education,    extension   of, 

121-22;  means  for  extending,  122- 

23;  present  advantages,  131-39;  in 

school  law  of   1869,  44;  in  school 

law  of  1889,  85. 
Seminary  fund,  15,  50,  52. 
Seminary  lands,  15,  152. 
Separate  schools  for  negroes,  8r,  83, 

225. 
Sheats,  W.  N.,  83  note,  97,  99,  102, 

106,   117,   121,   122,   171,   175,   186, 

195,  198,  200,  212. 
Sixteenth-section  lands,  I,  5-9,  11-12, 

16. 

Skipworth,  J.  L.,  101. 
Slater  Fund,  107. 
Smith-Hughes  Act,  215. 
Smith-Hughes  Fund,  aid  from,   142 

note,  145  note,  208. 
Smith-Lever  Act,  164. 
Smith-Lever   Fund,   aid   from,    168, 

208  note. 

South  Florida  Military  College,  161. 
Southern  Education  Board,  195,  208. 
State  aid,  18,  19,  50,  80,  81,  97  note, 

101,  104,  161-62,  181-82,  183,  186, 

1 93-96,  206-09,  238,  248. 
State  board  of  control,  193,  216-17. 
State    hoard    of    education,    35,    36, 

37-38,  47,  48,  79,  82,  85,  183,  214- 

15- 

State  board  of  examiners,  217. 
State   board    for    vocational    educa- 
tion, 215-16. 
State   Normal   College   for   Colored 

Students,  09,  100,  102. 
State    Normal    College    for    White 

Students,  99-100,   102. 
State    superintendent    of    public   in- 
struction, 17,  20,  32,  34,  38-39,  47, 

59,  79,  82,  213-14- 


State  superintendents  of  public  in- 
struction (1868-84),  49,  56. 

Stearns,  Governor,  67. 

Summer  schools,  164,  166,  168,  192- 
94,  196. 

Supervision,  school.  See  School  su- 
pervision. 

Support  of  schools,  19,  24-26,  34-35, 
36,  44-46,  53-58,  80-82,  87,  88-90, 
197-200,  248-50. 

Surplus  revenue,  9  note. 

Suspension  from  school,  226. 

System  of  instruction,  under  school 
law  of  1869,  43-44;  (1884-92), 
102-09;  since  1892,  111-69. 

Taxation,  school.  See  School  taxa- 
tion. 

Teachers,  appointment,  21,  39,  85, 
220,  245-46;  duties  and  powers, 
general,  43,  247;  examination  and 
certification,  17,  '39,  42,  95  note, 
188-92,  217,  242-45;  experience, 
180;  number,  96,  116,  122,  123,  124, 
180,  258;  qualification,  72-73,  95- 
96,  122,  123,  124,  180;  tenure,  245- 
46;  training,  73-76,  96-102,  179- 
88,  192-96,  247. 

Teachers'  associations,  county,  113, 
192;  state,  113,  192,  196. 

Teaching  force,  under  law  of  1869, 
42-43;  (1868-84),  72-76;  (1884- 
92),  95-102;  since  1892.  179-97. 

Teachers'  institutes,  75-76,  192-93. 

Teachers'  salaries,  77,  197,  258. 

Teacher-training  departments, 
county,  183-88;  in  non-state 
schools,  IOO-I02,  188;  in  the  state 
institutions,  163,  164,  165,  167. 

Terrell,  Park,  104. 

Textbook  commission,  state,  176-78, 
241-42. 

Textbook  sub-commission,  176,  178, 
241. 

Textbooks  used,  69-72,  175-79,  241- 
42. 

Thackston,  John  A.,  195  note. 

Transportation  of  pupils,  112,  113- 
14,  1 1 6,  229. 

Treasurer,  school.  See  School  treas- 
urer. 

Turner,  R.  L.,  195  note. 

Unfinished  tasks,  257-60. 
Uniformity  of  textbooks,  70-72,  175- 

79,  241-42. 
University  of   Florida,   159,   162-65, 

182,  194. 


270  INDEX 

Vocational    education,    106-07,    140-      West   Florida   Seminary,   51,   74-75, 
49,  164,  167,  168,  215-16,  237.  97,  102,  154-55,  158-59. 

Walker,  David  S.,  23,  25,  26,  31.  Year,  school,  meaning  of,  227. 

Wentworth,  James  H.,  66. 


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